nutritional epigenetics

Changes to children’s genetic profiles caused by fetal nutrition have been observed as early as the Dutch famine of 1944-1945.{{cite journal | vauthors = Roseboom TJ, Painter RC, van Abeelen AF, Veenendaal MV, de Rooij SR | title = Hungry in the womb: what are the consequences? Lessons from the Dutch famine | journal = Maturitas | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–145 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21802226 | doi = 10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.06.017 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Franzek EJ, Sprangers N, Janssens AC, Van Duijn CM, Van De Wetering BJ | title = Prenatal exposure to the 1944-45 Dutch 'hunger winter' and addiction later in life | journal = Addiction | volume = 103 | issue = 3 | pages = 433–438 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18190668 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.02084.x }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Painter RC, Roseboom TJ, Bleker OP | title = Prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine and disease in later life: an overview | journal = Reproductive Toxicology | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 345–352 | date = 2005 | pmid = 15893910 | doi = 10.1016/j.reprotox.2005.04.005 | bibcode = 2005RepTx..20..345P }}{{Cite journal |last=Tiffon |first=Céline |date=2018-11-01 |title=The Impact of Nutrition and Environmental Epigenetics on Human Health and Disease |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |language=en |volume=19 |issue=11 |pages=3425 |doi=10.3390/ijms19113425 |doi-access=free |issn=1422-0067 |pmc=6275017 |pmid=30388784}} Due to malnutrition in pregnant mothers, children born during this famine were more likely to exhibit health issues such as heart disease, obesity, schizophrenia, depression, and addiction.

Biologists Randy Jirtle and Robert A. Waterland became early pioneers of nutritional epigenetics after publishing their research on the effects of a pregnant mother’s diet on her offspring’s gene functions in the research journal Molecular and Cellular Biology in 2003.{{Cite news | vauthors = Blakeslee S |date=2003-10-07 |title=A Pregnant Mother's Diet May Turn the Genes Around |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/07/science/a-pregnant-mother-s-diet-may-turn-the-genes-around.html |access-date=2023-04-20 |issn=0362-4331}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Waterland RA, Jirtle RL | title = Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation | journal = Molecular and Cellular Biology | volume = 23 | issue = 15 | pages = 5293–5300 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12861015 | pmc = 165709 | doi = 10.1128/MCB.23.15.5293-5300.2003 }}

Researchers in nutritional epigenetics study the interaction between molecules in food and molecules that control gene expression, which leads to areas of focus such as dietary methyl groups and DNA methylation.{{Cite web | vauthors = Gardner A |date=2020-02-04 |title=Nutrigenomics 101: Understanding the Basics of DNA Diets |url=https://www.mygenefood.com/blog/what-is-nutrigenomics/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=Gene Food |language=en-US}} Nutrients and bioactive food components affect epigenetics by inhibiting enzymatic activity related to DNA methylation and histone modifications.{{cite journal | vauthors = Choi SW, Friso S | title = Epigenetics: A New Bridge between Nutrition and Health | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–16 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 22043447 | pmc = 3042783 | doi = 10.3945/an.110.1004 }} Because methyl groups are used for suppression of undesirable genes, a mother’s level of dietary methyl consumption can significantly alter her child’s gene expression, especially during early development.{{Cite web |title=Nutrition & the Epigenome |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/nutrition |access-date=2023-04-20 | work = Genetic Science Learning Center | date = 15 July 2013 | publisher = University of Utah Genetics }} Furthermore, nutrition can affect methylation as the process continues throughout an individual’s adult life. Because of this, nutritional epigeneticists have studied food as a form of molecular exposure.

DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group on a cytosine ring of DNA.{{Cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Bilian |last2=Li |first2=Yajun |last3=Robertson |first3=Keith |date=June 2011 |title=DNA Methylation |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3174260/#:~:text=DNA%20methylation%20is%20a%20heritable,T%2C%20or%20C)%20contexts. |access-date=7 April 2024 |journal=Genes & Cancer|volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=607–617 |doi=10.1177/1947601910393957 |pmid=21941617 |pmc=3174260 }} Without methylation, issues could arise regarding genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, and suppression of transcription and transposition. When methylation is not present to suppress transcription and transposition, the lack thereof can contribute to the development of cancer.{{Cite journal |date=July 1, 2001 |title=DNA Methylation: An Alternative Pathway to Cancer |journal=Ann. Surg. |language=en |volume=234 |issue=1 |pages=10–20 |doi=10.1097/00000658-200107000-00003 |issn=0003-4932 |pmc=1421942 |pmid=11420478 | vauthors = Wajed SA, Laird PW, Demeester TR }}

Bioactive food components that influence epigenetic processes range from vitamins such as A, B6, and B12 to alcohol and elements such as arsenic, cadmium, and selenium. Dietary methyl supplements such as extra folic acid and choline can also have adverse effects on epigenetic gene regulation.

Folate is an essential water-soluble vitamin that is naturally occurring in some foods.{{Citation |last1=Khan |first1=Kashif M. |title=Folic Acid Deficiency |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535377/ |access-date=2025-02-24 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30570998 |last2=Jialal |first2=Ishwarlal}} Folate can be found naturally at high levels in dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach, brussels sprouts and asparagus, as well as in liver.{{Cite web |title=Office of Dietary Supplements - Folate |url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Folate-HealthProfessional/ |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=ods.od.nih.gov |language=en}} Folic acid is a man made form used to supplement certain foods. Enriched breads, flours, pastas, rice, and breakfast cereals are commonly supplemented with folic acid.{{Cite journal |last=Nutrition |first=Center for Food Safety and Applied |date=March 25, 2024 |title=Folate and Folic Acid on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/folate-and-folic-acid-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels |journal=FDA |language=en}} In DNA methylation, folate serves as a source of carbon/ methyl group.{{Cite journal |last1=Crider |first1=Krista |last2=Yang |first2=Thomas |last3=Berry |first3=Robert |last4=Bailey |first4=Lynn |date=5 Jan 2012 |title=Folate and DNA Methylation: A Review of Molecular Mechanisms and the Evidence for Folate's Role |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=21–38 |doi=10.3945/an.111.000992 |pmid=22332098 |pmc=3262611 }}

Choline is a semi-essential nutrient that can be oxidized to betaine.{{Cite journal |last=Ueland |first=Per Magne |date=May 6, 2010 |title=Choline and betaine in health and disease |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1007/s10545-010-9088-4 |journal=Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=3–15 |doi=10.1007/s10545-010-9088-4 |pmid=20446114 |issn=0141-8955 |via=PubMed}} The betaine then functions as a methyl group donor in the process of DNA methylation.{{Cite journal |last1=Korsmo |first1=Hunter W. |last2=Dave |first2=Bhoomi |last3=Trasino |first3=Steven |last4=Saxena |first4=Anjana |last5=Liu |first5=Jia |last6=Caviglia |first6=Jorge Matias |last7=Edwards |first7=Kaydine |last8=Dembitzer |first8=Moshe |last9=Sheeraz |first9=Shameera |last10=Khaldi |first10=Sarah |last11=Jiang |first11=Xinyin |date=2022 |title=Maternal Choline Supplementation and High-Fat Feeding Interact to Influence DNA Methylation in Offspring in a Time-Specific Manner |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2022.841787 |doi-access=free |pmid=35165655 |issn=2296-861X|pmc=8837519 }} Choline can be found in animal products such as meat, eggs, poultry, fish and dairy as well as potatoes and green leafy vegetables.{{Cite web |title=Office of Dietary Supplements - Choline |url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-Consumer/ |access-date=2024-04-12 |website=ods.od.nih.gov |language=en}}

Researchers have considered that high-fat and low-protein diets during pregnancy can increase the risk of obesity in infants.{{Cite web | vauthors = Greenwood M | veditors = Surat P |date=2019-01-24 |title=What is Nutritional Genomics (Nutrigenomics)? |url=https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-Nutritional-Genomics.aspx |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=News-Medical.net |language=en}} The consumption of phytochemicals can also positively affect epigenetic-based mechanisms that inhibit cancer cells.{{cite journal | vauthors = Açar Y, Akbulut G | title = Nutritional Epigenetics and Phytochemicals in Cancer Formation | journal = Journal of the American Nutrition Association | volume = 42 | issue = 7 | pages = 700–705 | date = November 2022 | pmid = 36416668 | doi = 10.1080/27697061.2022.2147106 | s2cid = 253800920 }} Research has also suggested a link between nutritional epigenetics and the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ortega MA, Fraile-Martínez Ó, García-Montero C, Alvarez-Mon MA, Lahera G, Monserrat J, Llavero-Valero M, Mora F, Rodríguez-Jiménez R, Fernandez-Rojo S, Quintero J, Alvarez De Mon M | title = Nutrition, Epigenetics, and Major Depressive Disorder: Understanding the Connection | journal = Frontiers in Nutrition | volume = 9 | pages = 867150 | date = 2022 | pmid = 35662945 | pmc = 9158469 | doi = 10.3389/fnut.2022.867150 | doi-access = free }}

All life on Earth is influenced by the different flows of its environment, yet in humans, different environmental conditions such as poverty, alcohol, stress, malnutrition, exposure to pollutants, man-made chemicals, and synthetic drugs can lead to epigenetic-related illnesses/diseases with certain disease-specific genes typically being activated or deactivated.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mazzio EA, Soliman KF | title = Epigenetics and nutritional environmental signals | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–30 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24861811 | pmc = 4072902 | doi = 10.1093/icb/icu049 }}  The epigenome of an organism can be triggered by just about any environmental signal, including climate change, food/water supply, plant nutrient, temperature etc.

It has been estimated that more than 60% of deaths in humans are related to nutritional or dietary factors rather than environmental triggers. Based on a couple of studies from the Dutch Famine of 1944-1945, it is stated that starvation during pregnancy and subsequent health can result in, but not limited to a some health risks including type II diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders and decreased cognitive functions later in life.

The maternal lineage or mother's health and nutritional habits during pregnancy isn't the only influence on the offspring's overall health. Further transmission via the paternal line is highly likely to occur by epigenetic modulation of the spermatozoa's nucleus. An example of this is transgenerational transmission by the paternal lineage. There is evidence that both the paternal and maternal diets influence metabolic phenotypes in the offspring through epigenetic information transmission.

Evidence of the generational transmission of epigenetic mechanisms in humans was first discussed by Champagne in 2008 in the context of maternal stress with food insecurity being one type of stressor that can impact gene expression via changes in DNA methylation patterns.{{cite journal | vauthors = Champagne FA | title = Epigenetic mechanisms and the transgenerational effects of maternal care | journal = Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 386–397 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18462782 | pmc = 2682215 | doi = 10.1016/j.yfrne.2008.03.003 }} Another type of stressor is a poor prenatal diet that results in nutritional insufficiency and fetal epigenetic reprogramming that creates the blueprint for the development of diseases later in a child’s life.{{cite journal | vauthors = Goyal D, Limesand SW, Goyal R | title = Epigenetic responses and the developmental origins of health and disease | language = en-US | journal = The Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 242 | issue = 1 | pages = T105–T119 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31091503 | doi = 10.1530/JOE-19-0009 | s2cid = 155101302 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang WY, Ho SM | title = Epigenetic reprogramming and imprinting in origins of disease | journal = Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 173–182 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17638084 | pmc = 4056338 | doi = 10.1007/s11154-007-9042-4 }} Depending on geographical region, food quality issues may impact epigenetic inheritance via changes in methylation patterns associated with dietary heavy metal exposures, especially in the case of autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD).{{cite journal | vauthors = Dufault R, Lukiw WJ, Crider R, Schnoll R, Wallinga D, Deth R | title = A macroepigenetic approach to identify factors responsible for the autism epidemic in the United States | journal = Clinical Epigenetics | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 6 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22490277 | pmc = 3378453 | doi = 10.1186/1868-7083-4-6 | doi-access = free }}

Food insecurity refers to the inability to access enough food to meet basic needs and is associated with an increased risk of birth defects associated with DNA methylation patterns.{{cite journal | vauthors = Carmichael SL, Yang W, Herring A, Abrams B, Shaw GM | title = Maternal food insecurity is associated with increased risk of certain birth defects | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 137 | issue = 9 | pages = 2087–2092 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17709447 | pmc = 2063452 | doi = 10.1093/jn/137.9.2087 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu HY, Liu SM, Zhang YZ | title = Maternal Folic Acid Supplementation Mediates Offspring Health via DNA Methylation | journal = Reproductive Sciences | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 963–976 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32124397 | doi = 10.1007/s43032-020-00161-2 | s2cid = 211729425 }} An expectant mother who is food insecure will likely be under financial stress and unable to secure enough food to meet her nutritional needs. Her geographical location may be in a food desert where she is unable to access enough safe and nutritious food. Food deserts are linked to food insecurity and defined as areas of high-density fast-food restaurants and corner stores offering only unhealthy, highly processed foods at low prices.{{cite journal | vauthors = Di Renzo GC, Tosto V | title = Food insecurity, food deserts, reproduction and pregnancy: we should alert from now | journal = The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine | volume = 35 | issue = 25 | pages = 9119–9121 | date = December 2022 | pmid = 34918992 | doi = 10.1080/14767058.2021.2016052 | s2cid = 245262917 | doi-access = free }}

Poor prenatal diet or unhealthy diet has been shown to affect DNA methylation patterns and contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes, ADHD, and early onset conduct problems in children.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rijlaarsdam J, Cecil CA, Walton E, Mesirow MS, Relton CL, Gaunt TR, McArdle W, Barker ED | title = Prenatal unhealthy diet, insulin-like growth factor 2 gene (IGF2) methylation, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in youth with early-onset conduct problems | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 58 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–27 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27535767 | pmc = 5161647 | doi = 10.1111/jcpp.12589 | author5-link = Caroline Relton }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Nilsson E, Ling C | title = DNA methylation links genetics, fetal environment, and an unhealthy lifestyle to the development of type 2 diabetes | journal = Clinical Epigenetics | volume = 9 | pages = 105 | date = 2017 | pmid = 29026446 | pmc = 5627472 | doi = 10.1186/s13148-017-0399-2 | doi-access = free }}  Characteristics of an unhealthy prenatal diet leading to changes in DNA methylation patterns include the increased intake of high fat/sugar ultra-processed food products along with the inadequate intake of nutrient rich whole foods (e.g. fruits and vegetables). High-fat and low-protein diets during pregnancy can also increase the risk of obesity in infants.{{Cite web |date=2019-01-24 |title=What is Nutritional Genomics (Nutrigenomics)? |url=https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-Nutritional-Genomics.aspx |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=News-Medical.net |language=en}} Dietary methyl supplements such as extra folic acid and choline can also have adverse effects on epigenetic gene regulation. The current global food system is plagued by issues that adversely affect human health through multiple pathways with contaminated, unsafe, and altered foods being one of the most common factors associated with unhealthy diet.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yambi O, Rocha C, Jacobs N | title = Unravelling the Food-Health Nexus to Build Healthier Food Systems | journal = World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics | volume = 121 | pages = 1–8 | date = 2020 | pmid = 33502367 | doi = 10.1159/000507497 | isbn = 978-3-318-06697-5 | s2cid = 226421936 }} Low iron diets, or women who suffer from an iron deficiency, have been shown to increase the likelihood of a premature birth, low birth weight, and the increased possibility of postpartum depression.{{cite web |date=January 31, 2025 |title=Prevent iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/pregnancy-week-by-week/in-depth/anemia-during-pregnancy/art-20114455#:~:text=Severe%20iron%20deficiency%20anemia%20during,weight%20baby%20and%20postpartum%20depression |website=Mayo Clinic}}

Food quality issues vary from one geographic region to the next depending on country, food safety practices, and manufacturing and agricultural regulations regarding heavy metal, pesticide residues, and other [https://www.who.int/tools/occupational-hazards-in-health-sector/exposure-to-hazardous-chemicals hazardous exposures of concern].{{cite journal | vauthors = Aruoma OI | title = The impact of food regulation on the food supply chain | journal = Toxicology | volume = 221 | issue = 1 | pages = 119–127 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16483706 | doi = 10.1016/j.tox.2005.12.024 | bibcode = 2006Toxgy.221..119A }} To reduce exposures to chemical hazards such as pesticide and heavy metal residues, the World Trade Organization (WTO) sponsored agreements between countries to establish codes of best practices, issued by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, that attempt to guarantee the trade of safe food.  Despite the best practices in use, heavy metal and pesticide residues are still found in the food supply.{{Cite web | vauthors = McCarthy C |date=2021-03-05 |title=Heavy metals in baby food? What parents should know and do |url=https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/heavy-metals-in-baby-food-what-parents-should-know-and-do-2021030522088 |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=Harvard Health |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2021-09-29 |title=New Disclosures Show Dangerous Levels of Toxic Heavy Metals in Even More Baby Foods |url= https://oversightdemocrats.house.gov/sites/democrats.oversight.house.gov/files/ECP%20Second%20Baby%20Food%20Report%209.29.21%20FINAL.pdf |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=US House of Representatives}}  Pre-natal and post-natal dietary exposures to inorganic mercury and lead residues resulting from unhealthy diets have been shown to consistently impact important gene behaviors in children with autism and ADHD.{{cite journal |vauthors=Dufault RJ, Wolle MM, Kingston HM, Gilbert SG, Murray JA |date=July 2021 |title=Connecting inorganic mercury and lead measurements in blood to dietary sources of exposure that may impact child development |journal=World Journal of Methodology |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=144–159 |doi=10.5662/wjm.v11.i4.144 |pmc=8299913 |pmid=34322366 |doi-access=free}} Prenatal organophosphate pesticide exposure has been shown to impact DNA methylation in genes associated with the development of cardio-metabolic diseases.{{cite journal | vauthors = Declerck K, Remy S, Wohlfahrt-Veje C, Main KM, Van Camp G, Schoeters G, Vanden Berghe W, Andersen HR | title = Interaction between prenatal pesticide exposure and a common polymorphism in the PON1 gene on DNA methylation in genes associated with cardio-metabolic disease risk-an exploratory study | journal = Clinical Epigenetics | volume = 9 | pages = 35 | date = 2017 | pmid = 28396702 | pmc = 5382380 | doi = 10.1186/s13148-017-0336-4 | doi-access = free }} Infection from food is a serious factor during pregnancy. Not in particular of what the mother eats, but that is just as important, but the way the food is prepared. A mother should cook all of the food thoroughly, especially meats. All of the produce should be washed well after washing hands. Pasteurized dairy products should be the type of dairy being consumed by the mother.{{cite web |date=February 7, 2022 |title=What are the most common pregnancy complications? |url=https://www.invitra.com/en/pregnancy-complications/ |website=Invitra.com}}

{{Reflist}}

• [https://www.who.int/tools/occupational-hazards-in-health-sector/exposure-to-hazardous-chemicals hazardous exposures of concern]

Category:Nutritional science

Category:Genetic mapping

Category:Genomics

Category:Nutrition

Category:Medical genetics

Category:Epigenetics