oligospermia

File:Spermatogenesis pathologies.png of various spermatogenesis disorders.]]

The diagnosis of oligozoospermia is based on one low count in a semen analysis performed on two occasions. For many decades sperm concentrations of less than 20 million sperm/ml were considered low or oligospermic, recently, however, the WHO reassessed sperm criteria and established a lower reference point, less than 15 million sperm/ml, consistent with the 5th percentile for fertile men.{{cite journal |vauthors=Cooper TG, Noonan E, von Eckardstein S, etal |title=World Health Organization reference values for human semen characteristics |journal=Hum. Reprod. Update |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=231–45 |year=2010 |pmid=19934213 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmp048 |doi-access=free }} Sperm concentrations fluctuate daily and oligozoospermia may be temporary or permanent.

The diagnosis of oligozoospermia requires a work-up via semen analysis (listed in Male infertility).

{{Further|Semen quality}}

There are many causes for oligospermia including:Rowe PJ, Comhaire FH, Hargreave TB, Mahmoud AMA. WHO Manual for the Standardized Investigation, Diagnosis and Management of the Infertile Male. Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-521-77474-8}}.

Pre-testicular factors refer to conditions that impede adequate support of the testes and include situations of poor hormonal support and poor general health including:

• Hypogonadism due to various causes
• Drugs, alcohol, smoking
• Strenuous riding (bicycle riding,{{cite journal |vauthors=Leibovitch I, Mor Y |title=The vicious cycling: bicycling related urogenital disorders |journal=Eur. Urol. |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=277–86; discussion 286–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15716187 |doi=10.1016/j.eururo.2004.10.024}} horseback riding)
• Medications, including androgens.

Testicular factors refer to conditions where the testes produces semen of poor quality despite adequate hormonal support and include:

• Age
• Genetic defects on the Y chromosome
• Y chromosome microdeletions
• Abnormal set of chromosomes
• Klinefelter syndrome
• Neoplasm, e.g. seminoma
• Cryptorchidism
• Varicocele (14% in one study){{cite web |url=http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/what_causes_of_male_infertility_000067_4.htm |title=Infertility in men |access-date=2007-11-21 }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Costabile RA, Spevak M |title=Characterization of patients presenting with male factor infertility in an equal access, no cost medical system |journal=Urology |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1021–4 |year=2001 |pmid=11744480 |doi=10.1016/S0090-4295(01)01400-5}}
• Trauma
• Hydrocele
• Mumps{{cite journal |vauthors=Masarani M, Wazait H, Dinneen M |title=Mumps orchitis |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=99 |issue=11 |pages=573–5 |year=2006 |pmid=17082302 |doi=10.1177/014107680609901116 |pmc=1633545}}
• Malaria
• Defects in USP26 enzyme in some cases{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang J, Qiu SD, Li SB, etal |title=Novel mutations in ubiquitin-specific protease 26 gene might cause spermatogenesis impairment and male infertility |journal=Asian Journal of Andrology |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=809–14 |year=2007 |pmid=17968467 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-7262.2007.00305.x|doi-access=free }}

Mast cells releasing inflammatory mediators appear to directly suppress sperm motility in a potentially reversible manner, and may be a common pathophysiological mechanism for several of the above-mentioned factors.{{Cite journal | last1 = Menzies | first1 = F. M. | last2 = Shepherd | first2 = M. C. | last3 = Nibbs | first3 = R. J. | last4 = Nelson | first4 = S. M. | title = The role of mast cells and their mediators in reproduction, pregnancy and labour | doi = 10.1093/humupd/dmq053 | journal = Human Reproduction Update | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 383–396 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20959350| doi-access = free }}

Post-testicular factors decrease male fertility due to conditions that affect the male genital system after testicular sperm production and include defects of the genital tract as well as problems in ejaculation:

• Vas deferens obstruction
• Lack of Vas deferens, often related to genetic markers for cystic fibrosis
• Infection, e.g. prostatitis
• Ejaculatory duct obstruction

In about 30% of infertile men no causative factor is found for their decrease in sperm concentration or quality by common clinical, instrumental, or laboratory means, and the condition is termed "idiopathic" (unexplained).{{cite journal| author=Cavallini G |title=Male idiopathic oligoasthenoteratozoospermia |journal=Asian J Androl | volume=8| issue=2| pages=143–57 |doi= 10.1111/j.1745-7262.2006.00123.x| year=2006|pmid=16491265| doi-access=free}} A number of factors may be involved in the genesis of this condition, including age, infectious agents ( such as Chlamydia trachomatis), Y chromosome microdeletions, mitochondrial changes, environmental pollutants, and "subtle" hormonal changes.

A review in 2013 came to the result that oligospermia and azoospermia are significantly associated with being overweight (odds ratio 1.1), obese (odds ratio 1.3) and morbidly obese (odds ratio 2.0), but the cause of this is unknown.[https://web.archive.org/web/20151223094830/http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/3/221] {{Cite journal | last1 = Sermondade | first1 = N. | last2 = Faure | first2 = C. | last3 = Fezeu | first3 = L. | last4 = Shayeb | first4 = A. G. | last5 = Bonde | first5 = J. P. | last6 = Jensen | first6 = T. K. | last7 = Van Wely | first7 = M. | last8 = Cao | first8 = J. | last9 = Martini | first9 = A. C. | display-authors = 3| doi = 10.1093/humupd/dms050 | title = BMI in relation to sperm count: An updated systematic review and collaborative meta-analysis | journal = Human Reproduction Update | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 221–231 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23242914| pmc =3621293 }} It found no significant relation between oligospermia and being underweight.

The human breast cancer susceptibility gene 2 (BRCA2) is employed in homologous recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis. A common single-nucleotide polymorphism of BRCA2 is associated with severe oligospermia.{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhoucun A, Zhang S, Yang Y, Ma Y, Zhang W, Lin L |title=The common variant N372H in BRCA2 gene may be associated with idiopathic male infertility with azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia |journal=Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. |volume=124 |issue=1 |pages=61–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16257105 |doi=10.1016/j.ejogrb.2005.09.001 }}

Men with mild oligospermia (semen concentration of 15 million to 20 million sperm/ml) were studied for an association of sperm DNA damage with life style factors.{{cite journal |vauthors=Radwan M, Jurewicz J, Merecz-Kot D, Sobala W, Radwan P, Bochenek M, Hanke W |title=Sperm DNA damage-the effect of stress and everyday life factors |journal=Int. J. Impot. Res. |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=148–54 |year=2016 |pmid=27076112 |doi=10.1038/ijir.2016.15 |doi-access=free }} A significant association was found between sperm DNA damage and factors such as age, obesity and occupational stress.

Treatment takes place within the context of infertility management and needs also to consider the fecundity of the female partner. Thus the choices can be complex.

In a number of situations direct medical or surgical intervention can improve the sperm concentration, examples are use of FSH in men with pituitary hypogonadism, antibiotics in case of infections, or operative corrections of a hydrocele, varicocele, or vas deferens obstruction.

In most cases of oligospermia including its idiopathic form there is no direct medical or surgical intervention agreed to be effective. Empirically many medical approaches have been tried including clomiphene citrate, tamoxifen, HMG, FSH, HCG, testosterone, Vitamin E, Vitamin C, anti-oxidants, carnitine, acetyl-L-carnitine, zinc, high-protein diets. In a number of pilot studies some positive results have been obtained. Clomiphene citrate has been used with modest success. The combination of tamoxifen plus testosterone was reported to improve the sperm situation.{{cite journal |vauthors=Adamopoulos DA, Nicopoulou S, Kapolla N, Karamertzanis M, Andreou E |title=The combination of testosterone undecanoate with tamoxifen citrate enhances the effects of each agent given independently on seminal parameters in men with idiopathic oligozoospermia.|journal=Fertil. Steril. |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=756–62 |year=1997 |pmid=9093207 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(97)81379-9|doi-access=free }}

The use of carnitine showed some promise in a controlled trial in selected cases of male infertility improving sperm quality and further studies are needed.{{cite journal|vauthors=Lenzi A, Lombardo F, Sgro P, Salacone P, Caponecchia L, Dondero F, Gandini L |title=Use of carnitine therapy in selected cases of male factor infertility: a double-blind crossover trial. |journal=Fertility and Sterility | pmid=12569937| year=1991| volume=25| issue=5| pages=1253–326}}

In many situations, intrauterine inseminations are performed with success.{{cite journal|vauthors=Francavilla F, Sciarretta F, Sorgentone S, Necozione S, Santucci R, Barbonetti A, Francavilla S | title=Intrauterine insemination with or without mild ovarian stimulation in couples with male subfertility due to oligo/astheno- and/or teratozoospermia or antisperm antibodies: a prospective cross-over trial. |journal=Fertil. Steril. | volume=92| issue=3| pages=1009–11| year=2009| pmid=19261275| doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.01.112| doi-access=free}} In more severe cases IVF, or IVF - ICSI is done{{cite journal| author=Check JH| title=Treatment of male infertility. |journal=Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. | volume=34| issue=4| pages=201–6| year=2007 |pmid= 18225678}} and is often the best option, specifically if time is a factor or fertility problems coexist on the female side.

The Low dose Estrogen Testosterone Combination Therapy may improve sperm count and motility in some men{{cite journal|last=Sah|first=P|title=Role of low-dose estrogen-testosterone combination therapy in men with oligospermia.|journal=Fertility and Sterility|date=October 1998|volume=70|issue=4|pages=780–1|pmid=9797116|doi=10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00273-8|doi-access=free}} including severe oligospermia.{{cite journal|last=Sah|first=P|title=Oligospermia due to partial maturation arrest responds to low dose estrogen-testosterone combination therapy resulting in live-birth: a case report.|journal=Asian Journal of Andrology|date=December 2002|volume=4|issue=4|pages=307–8|pmid=12508135}}

Achieving a pregnancy naturally may be a challenge if the male has a low sperm count. However, chances are good if the female partner is fertile; many couples with this problem have been successful. Prognosis is more limited if there is a combination of factors that include sperm dysfunction and reduced ovarian reserve.

• Conception device
• Male infertility
• Semen quality
• Vasectomy

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}}{{Male diseases of the pelvis and genitals}}

Category:Testicular infertility factors