pesto

The name pesto is the past participle of the Genoese verb {{lang|lij|pestâ}} (Italian: {{lang|it|pestare}}), meaning 'to pound', 'to crush': the ingredients are "crushed" or ground in a marble mortar through a circular motion of a wooden pestle. The same Latin root is the basis for pestle.{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/pesto#etymonline_v_12782|title=pesto|work=Online Etymological Dictionary|access-date=16 May 2019|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501172002/https://www.etymonline.com/word/pesto#etymonline_v_12782|url-status=live}} There are other foods called pesto, but pesto by itself usually means pesto alla genovese.{{Cite book|last=Pronzati|first=Virgilio|date=2012|title=Come uno specialista di enogastronomia racconta la storia popolare Genovese|trans-title=How a food and wine specialist relates the Genoese folk history|chapter=Si fa presto a dire pesto|trans-chapter=It is one thing to say Pesto|url=http://www.acompagna.org/wit/chisiamo/iniziative/martedi/2011-2012/120320.pdf|location=Genoa|issue=I Martedì dell'associazione "A Compagna"|language=it|page=2|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=27 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127060239/http://www.acompagna.org/wit/chisiamo/iniziative/martedi/2011-2012/120320.pdf|url-status=live}}

File:PastaWithPesto.JPG with pesto]]

Pesto is thought to have had two predecessors in ancient times, going back as far as the Roman age. The ancient Romans used to eat a similar paste called "moretum", which was made by crushing garlic, salt, cheese, herbs, olive oil, and vinegar (and sometimes pine nuts) together.{{Cite web|title=Moretum – Appendix Vergiliana|url=http://www.virgil.org/appendix/moretum.htm|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=13 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113232730/http://virgil.org/appendix/moretum.htm|url-status=live}} The use of this paste in the Roman cuisine is mentioned in the Appendix Vergiliana, an ancient collection of poems in which the author details the preparation of moretum. During the Middle Ages, a popular sauce in the Genoan cuisine was agliata, which was a mash of garlic and walnuts, as garlic was a staple in the nutrition of Ligurians, especially for the seafarers.

The introduction of basil, the main ingredient of modern pesto, occurred in more recent times and is first documented only from the 1850s. Emanuele Rossi published La Vera Cucineria Genovese in 1852 and gastronomist Giovanni Battista Ratto published La Cuciniera Genovese in 1863:

"Take a clove of garlic, basil or, when that is lacking, marjoram and parsley, grated Dutch and Parmigiano cheese and mix them with pine nuts and crush it all together in a mortar with a little butter until reduced to a paste. Then dissolve it with good and abundant oil. Lasagne and trofie are dressed with this mash, made more liquid by adding a little hot water without salt."{{Cite book |last=Ratto |first=Giovanni Battista |title=La Cuciniera Genovese |publisher=Fratelli Pagano |date=1863 |location=Genoa |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51857 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010005244/https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51857 |archive-date=10 October 2020 |access-date=4 October 2020 |url-status=bot: unknown }}

Basil took the firmest root in the regions of Liguria, Italy, and Provence, France.{{Cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |author-link=Harold McGee |title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen |date=2004 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |location=New York, New York |lccn=2004058999 |oclc=56590708}} It is abundant in these regions in season, and marjoram and parsley may be used when basil is out of season. Ratto mentions Dutch cheese (formaggio olandese) instead of pecorino sardo, since Northern European cheeses were common in Genoa at the time, thanks to the centuries-long commercial trades of the maritime republic.

This recipe for pesto alla genovese was often revised in the following years (a noted revision by Emanuele Rossi occurred in 1865, only a couple of years after Ratto's Cuciniera),{{Cite book|last=Rossi|first=Emanuele|title=La vera cuciniera Genovese facile ed economica|date=1865|location=Genoa}} and it shortly became a staple in the Ligurian culinary tradition, with many variants.{{Cite web|url=https://www.zelfpestomaken.nl/|title=Zelf Pesto Maken|access-date=2 February 2019|archive-date=3 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203084932/https://www.zelfpestomaken.nl/|url-status=live}}

An early American pesto recipe was published in 1928; it includes butter and cream.{{Cite news |last=Rector |first=George |author-link=George Rector |date=13 June 1929 |title=Rector's Recipes |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96796735/the-modesto-bee/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302221048/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96796735/the-modesto-bee/ |archive-date=2 March 2022 |access-date=2 March 2022 |newspaper=The Modesto Bee}} In 1946, Sunset magazine published a pesto recipe by Angelo Pellegrini. Pesto became popular in North America in the 1980s and 1990s.{{Cite news|last=Traverso|first=Amy|title=Pesto's Premiere|newspaper=Sunset|page=116|date=April 2008|url=https://www.sunset.com/sunset/food/article/0,20633,1717438,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513052652/http://www.sunset.com/sunset/food/article/0,20633,1717438,00.html|archive-date=13 May 2008|access-date=22 July 2008}}

File:Ingredienti per il pesto.jpg

Pesto is traditionally prepared in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle. First, garlic and pine nuts are placed in the mortar and reduced to a cream, and then the washed and dried basil leaves are added with coarse salt and ground to a creamy consistency. Only then is a mix of Parmesan and pecorino added. To help incorporate the cheese, a little extra-virgin olive oil is added. In a tight jar (or simply in an air-tight plastic container), covered by a layer of extra-virgin olive oil, pesto can last in the refrigerator for up to a week and can be frozen for later use.{{Cite web|work=mangiareinliguria.it|url=http://www.mangiareinliguria.it/consorziopestogenovese/pestogenovese.php|title=Consorzio del pesto Genovese recipe|access-date=21 February 2008|archive-date=1 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501185828/http://www.mangiareinliguria.it/consorziopestogenovese/pestogenovese.php|url-status=live}}

File:Pasta al Pesto in Florence, Italy (47909905101).jpg with pesto alla genovese at a restaurant in Florence, Italy]]

Pesto is commonly used on pasta, traditionally with mandilli de sæa ('silk handkerchiefs' in the Genoese dialect),{{Cite web|url=http://www.mangiareinliguria.it/ita/ricette/ricette_liguria/mandilli_de_saea.php|title=Mangiare in Liguria|date=11 April 2020|access-date=9 May 2011|archive-date=14 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714001130/http://www.mangiareinliguria.it/ita/ricette/ricette_liguria/mandilli_de_saea.php|url-status=live}} trofie or trenette.

Pesto comes in a variety of recipes, some traditional and some modern, as the very noun pesto is a generic term for anything that is made by pounding.{{Cite book|last=Rankin|first=Dottie|title=Very Pesto|year=2004|publisher=Celestial Arts|isbn=978-1-58761-208-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/verypesto0000rank/page/8 8]|url=https://archive.org/details/verypesto0000rank/page/8}}

The original pesto alla genovese is made with Genovese basil, coarse salt, garlic, Ligurian extra virgin olive oil (Taggiasco), European pine nuts (sometimes toasted), and a grated cheese such as Parmesan or Grana Padano and pecorino sardo or pecorino romano. A proposal is under preparation by the Palatifini Association to have pesto alla genovese included in the UNESCO intangible cultural heritage list.{{Cite web |url=https://genova.repubblica.it/cronaca/2018/03/18/news/in_27_000_firmano_per_il_pesto_patrimonio_unesco-191620898/?refresh_ce |title=La Republica, 18 March 2018 |date=18 March 2018 |access-date=2 February 2019 |archive-date=3 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203030525/https://genova.repubblica.it/cronaca/2018/03/18/news/in_27_000_firmano_per_il_pesto_patrimonio_unesco-191620898/?refresh_ce |url-status=live }}

File:Pesto bread.jpg

There is a slightly different version in Provence, where it is known as pistou (from pistar, 'to pound' in Occitan).{{Cite web |title=PISTOU : Etymologie de PISTOU |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/pistou |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=www.cnrtl.fr}} Pistou is generally made with only olive oil, basil, and garlic, and not cheese, although some modern versions include it. Almonds or breadcrumbs can be used to give the final consistency.{{Cite book |last=Tretz.) |first=Jean François de Gaufridi (baron de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf0GMwEACAAJ |title=Histoire de Provence [ed. by the abbé de Gaufridi]. |date=1694 |language=en}} Pistou is used in the soupe au pistou, a hearty vegetable soup.{{Cite book|last=Brennan|first=Georgeanna|title=A Pig in Provence: Good Food and Simple Pleasures in the South of France|date=8 March 2007|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-0-8118-5213-5|page=156}}

Outside of Italy, sometimes almond, Brazil, cashew, hazelnut, macadamia, pecan, pistachio, walnut, or even peanuts are used instead of pine nuts, and sometimes coriander, dill, kale, mint, parsley, rocket, spinach or wild garlic leaves are mixed in with the basil leaves. Any combination of flavourful leaves, oily nuts, hard cheese, olive oil, garlic, salt, and lemon juice can produce a pesto-like condiment.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/feb/01/cheap-food-diy-homemade-ingredients|title=10 best foods to make from scratch and save money|newspaper=The Guardian|date=1 February 2016|author=Dale Berning Sawa|access-date=1 February 2016|archive-date=1 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201124049/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/feb/01/cheap-food-diy-homemade-ingredients|url-status=live}}

Pesto alla siciliana, also known as pesto alla trapanese and sometimes called pesto rosso ('red pesto'), is a sauce from Sicily similar to pesto alla genovese but with the addition of fresh tomato and almonds instead of pine nuts, and much less basil.{{cite book |title=Sauces & Shapes: Pasta the Italian Way |first=Oretta |last=Zanini De Vita |first2=Maureen B. |last2=Fant |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=9780393082432 |date=14 October 2013}}

Pesto alla calabrese is a sauce from Calabria consisting of (grilled) bell peppers, black pepper, and more; these ingredients give it a distinctively spicy taste.{{Cite book|last=Locatelli|first=Giorgio|title=Made in Sicily|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2011|isbn=978-0-00-745722-9|at=n.p.}}

Outside Italy, the name pesto has been used for all sorts of cold sauces or dips, mostly without any of the original ingredients: coriander, dill, kale, mint, parsley, rocket, spinach or wild garlic (instead of or in addition to basil), artichokes, black olives, green olives, lemon peel, lime peel or mushrooms.{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodnetwork.it/|title=Recipes: Mushroom Pesto Crostini|publisher=Food Network|access-date=2 February 2019|archive-date=2 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202221645/http://www.foodnetwork.it/|url-status=live}} In more northern countries, ramson leaves are sometimes used instead of basil.{{Cite web|title=Gewürzmix für Bärlauch Pesto|trans-title=Spice blend for ramsons pesto|url=https://www.gourvita.com/|access-date=19 July 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130719105526/http://www.gourvita.com/de/gewurzmix-fur-barlauch-pesto.html|archive-date=19 July 2013|url-status=dead}}

Vegan variations may substitute miso paste and nutritional yeast for cheese.{{Cite book|title=Millennium Cookbook: Extraordinary Vegetarian Cuisine|first1=Eric|last1=Tucker|first2=John|last2=Westerdahl|first3=Sascha|last3=Weiss|name-list-style=amp }}

For reasons of expense or availability, almond, Brazil nut, cashew, hazelnut, macadamia, pecan, pistachio, walnut, or even peanuts are sometimes substituted for the traditional pine nuts. Also, while the nuts are traditionally raw, some recipes call for prior toasting or roasting. Other nuts may be used due to the taste disturbances that some people may experience after consuming pine nuts (see pine mouth). Many online recipes in English for pesto include black pepper or white pepper,{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/food-network-kitchens/basil-pesto-recipe2.html|title=Basil Pesto|website=Food Network|access-date=26 April 2016|archive-date=25 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425210010/http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/food-network-kitchens/basil-pesto-recipe2.html|url-status=live}} which are not present in the usual Genoese recipe. Prepared pesto sold in supermarkets often replaces the extra virgin olive oil with cheaper vegetable oils. Some manufacturers of pesto for European supermarkets also use fillers such as potato flakes or potato starch, which soften the strong flavour. Certain pesto recipes abroad replace basil or pine nuts with other herbs and greens, such as:

• Coconut{{Cite web|url=https://recipesfromapantry.com/coconut-pesto-vegan/|title=Coconut Pesto|date=12 October 2017|publisher=Recipes from a Pantry|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116175107/https://recipesfromapantry.com/coconut-pesto-vegan/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/eatwell/recipes/coconut-basil-pesto/ZKLCOPTL2NNXUT2PCOY2AXJZG4/|title=Coconut Basil Pesto|publisher=New Zealand Herald|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010205505/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/eatwell/recipes/coconut-basil-pesto/ZKLCOPTL2NNXUT2PCOY2AXJZG4/|url-status=live}}
• Avocado and parsley{{Cite web|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/avocado-pesto-dairy-free-recipe-4136749|title=Avocado Pesto|publisher=The Spruce Eats|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=11 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811221604/https://www.thespruceeats.com/avocado-pesto-dairy-free-recipe-4136749|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.everydayhealthyrecipes.com/spaghetti-with-parsley-avocado-pesto/|title=Avocado Pesto Sauce with Parsley|date=21 April 2020|publisher=Everyday Healthy Recipes|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810220924/https://www.everydayhealthyrecipes.com/spaghetti-with-parsley-avocado-pesto/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://kirbiecravings.com/avocado-pesto-pasta/|title=Avocado Pesto Pasta|date=20 March 2018|publisher=Kirbie Cravings|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810163842/https://kirbiecravings.com/avocado-pesto-pasta/|url-status=live}}
• Carrots, coriander, and cumin{{Cite web|url=https://scratchinit.halversen.com/2014/09/carrot-and-cumin-pesto/|title=Carrot and Cumin Pesto|publisher=Halversen|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505233854/http://scratchinit.halversen.com/2014/09/carrot-and-cumin-pesto/|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/eatwell/recipes/coriander-and-cumin-pesto/2L5WDHBTENYFDT75HEO6OPCZJ4/|title=Coriander and Cumin Pesto|publisher=New Zealand Herald|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010205503/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/eatwell/recipes/coriander-and-cumin-pesto/2L5WDHBTENYFDT75HEO6OPCZJ4/|url-status=live}}
• Turmeric{{Cite web|url=https://blog.paleohacks.com/carrot-noodles-with-turmeric-pesto/|title=Noodles with Turmeric Pesto|date=16 April 2017|publisher=Paleohacks|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001011142/https://blog.paleohacks.com/carrot-noodles-with-turmeric-pesto/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://fabsgoodfood.com/recipe/vegan-cashew-pesto-with-turmeric/|title=Vegan Cashew Pesto with Turmeric|publisher=Fabs Good Food|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121175547/https://fabsgoodfood.com/recipe/vegan-cashew-pesto-with-turmeric/|url-status=live}}
• Ginger{{Cite web|url=https://www.allrecipes.com/recipe/244819/ginger-garlic-pesto/|title=Ginger Garlic Pesto|publisher=Allrecipes|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010205504/https://www.allrecipes.com/recipe/244819/ginger-garlic-pesto/|url-status=live}}
• Perilla leaf{{Cite web|title=Korean Perilla Pesto Recipe on Food52|url=https://food52.com/recipes/1119-korean-perilla-pesto|access-date=2021-02-18|website=Food52|language=en-us|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125174622/https://food52.com/recipes/1119-korean-perilla-pesto|url-status=live}}
• Spirulina
• Walnuts

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