philosophy of evolution

Evolutionary theory was transformed by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species; until that date the idea of evolutionary progress had been a pseudoscientific view, without evidence to back it.{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |title=On the Origin of Species |date=1859 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |edition=1st |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/}}{{sfn|Ruse|1996|page=526}}

In the 20th century, evolutionary science underwent the modern evolutionary synthesis, and in the 21st century is undergoing the extended evolutionary synthesis.

Social Spencerism was a misapplication of Darwin's ideas resulting from Spencer's problematic ethics.{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=David Sloan |title=This View of Life: Completing the Darwinian Revolution |date=2019 |publisher=Pantheon |edition=1st |pages= }}{{cite book |last=Dennett |first=Daniel |title=Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |pages= }}

== Philosophy ==

=== Definitions ===

{{see also|Philosophy of biology}}

File:Equine evolution.jpg argued against the naive view that evolution such as of the horse took place in a "straight-line". He noted that any chosen line is one path in a complex branching tree, as natural selection has no imposed direction.{{sfn|Larson|2004|pp=221–243}}{{sfn|Bowler|2003|pp=325–339}}]]

The core of evolution is that everything can change, with variants that are better adapted being selected: but crucially without any sort of overall direction or plan. There is a theory that evolution has a direction and is progressive, orthogenesis.{{sfn|Bowler|2003|pp=196–253}} As well as a general popular belief that this is what evolution entails, it has been supported by some biologists, such as the ant expert E. O. Wilson, although it is non-Darwinian.{{sfn|Ruse|1996|pages=512–513}}

=== Causes of evolution ===

Philosophers of evolution have debated whether natural selection and other mechanisms of evolution are causes of change, or whether they are merely high-level summaries of the effects of many events such as the deaths of specific individuals.{{cite web |title=Evolution |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evolution/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=26 June 2024 |date=23 September 2021 |orig-date=25 August 2017}}

Another area of debate is the unit of evolution. Selection is often seen as applying at the level of the individual organism (a problematic concept), but cases can be made for selection at lower levels such as the gene, or at higher levels such as groups that live together, but rarely if ever at the level of whole species.

=== Altruism ===

Debate has continued over the evolution of altruism, behaviour which may be harmful to the individual that practises it, but beneficial to others. Proposed explanations have again centred on whether evolution takes place at the level of individuals or of groups. Kin selection proposes that altruism should evolve when closely related individuals live together.

Sub-domains of the philosophy of evolution include its epistemology, its logic, and its metaphysics.

{{main|Evolutionary epistemology}}

Evolutionary epistemology was discussed by Donald T. Campbell in his 1974 essay "Evolutionary Epistemology", part of the 2-volume book The Philosophy of Karl Popper.{{cite book |last=Schilpp |first=P. A. |title=The Philosophy of Karl Popper |date=1974 |publisher=La Salle |pages=413–459 |edition=1st}} It is a naturalistic approach to epistemology, part of the philosophy of science. It subscribes to the idea that cognition is primarily a product of biological evolution.{{cite web |last=Gontier |first=Nathalie |title=Evolutionary Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/evo-epis/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=7 March 2024}} Campbell's 1974 essay "Evolutionary Epistemology" develops a selectionist theory of human creativity. The creativity science scholar Dean Keith Simonton has contributed significantly to evolutionary epistemology.{{cite web |last=Simonton |first=Dean Keith |title=Staff page |url=https://simonton.faculty.ucdavis.edu/ |website=University of California, Davis}} He proposed a Darwinian model of the psychology of scientific discovery, refining Campbell's BVSR (blind variation and selective retention) model.{{cite journal |last=Simonton |first=Dean Keith |title=The Blind-Variation and Selective-Retention Theory of Creativity: Recent Developments and Current Status of BVSR |journal=Creativity Research Journal |date=3 July 2023 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=304–323 |doi=10.1080/10400419.2022.2059919|doi-access=free }}

{{See also|Evolutionary computation}}

Evolutionary logic is a theory of rationality where logical law emerges as an intrinsic aspect of evolutionary biology. William S. Cooper, in his 2001 book The Evolution of Reason: Logic as a Branch of Biology, illustrates how logical rules are derived directly from evolutionary principles.{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=William S. |title=The Evolution of Reason: Logic as a Branch of Biology |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

Evolution as computation is a concept explored by John Mayfield in his 2013 book The Engine of Complexity: Evolution as Computation. He synthesizes core concepts from multiple disciplines to offer a new approach to understanding how evolution works, and how complex organisms, structures, organizations, and social orders can and do arise, based on information theory and computational science.{{cite book |last1=Mayfield |first1=J. E. |title=The Engine of Complexity: Evolution as Computation |date=2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}

Evolutionary metaphysics is a perspective that views metaphysical concepts through the lens of evolutionary biology. John Dupré, in his work published in Interface Focus (2017){{cite journal |last1=Dupré |first1=John |title=The metaphysics of evolution |journal=Interface Focus |date=6 October 2017 |volume=7 |issue=5 |doi=10.1098/rsfs.2016.0148|pmid=28839921 |pmc=5566809 }} and elsewhere, explores the implications of process metaphysics for conceptualizing evolution.

{{See also|Universal Darwinism}}

Philosophy of evolution intersects with other domains, including ethics, aesthetics and the arts, and political philosophy.

{{Main|Evolutionary ethics}}

Evolutionary ethics examines the implications of evolutionary biology for ethical theories. Evolutionary philosopher Michael Bradie has made significant contributions to this field.{{cite book |last1=Bradie |first1=Michael |title=The Secret Chain: Evolution and Ethics |date=1994 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}

David Sloan Wilson's (2019) nonfiction book This View of Life{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=David Sloan |title=This View of Life: Completing the Darwinian Revolution |date=2019 |publisher=Pantheon}} and his satirical novel Atlas Hugged (2021){{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=David Sloan |title=Atlas Hugged |date=2020 |publisher=Redwood Publishing, LLC.}} both examine evolutionary ethics, exploring prosocial behavior (altruism) versus selfish behavior.

{{further|Darwinian literary studies}}

Evolutionary aesthetics is the study of art from a biological point of view. Science, arts and humanities scholars on evolutionary aesthetics include Edward O. Wilson,{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Edward O. |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |date=1998 |publisher=Knopf: Distributed by Random House |edition=1st}} Dennis Dutton,{{cite book |last1=Dutton |first1=Dennis |title=The Art Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure and Human Evolution |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} Joseph Carroll,{{cite book |last1=Carroll |first1=Joseph |title=Evolution and Literary Theory |date=1995 |publisher=University of Missouri Press}} Brian Boyd,{{cite book |last1=Boyd |first1=Brian |title=On The Origin Of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction |date=2009 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press}} Steven Pinker, Jonathan Gottschall,{{cite book |last1=Gottschall |first1=Jonathan |title=The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human |date=2012 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt}} Ellen Dissanayake,{{cite book |last1=Dissanayake |first1=Ellen |title=Art and Intimacy: How the Arts Began |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press}} and various biocultural anthropologists.

Psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's evolutionary sociocultural systems model of creativity is an explicitly Darwinian evolutionary model of the variation, selection, and transmission of creative (new, useful, and surprising) units of culture, in all domains in culture.{{cite book |last1=Csikszentmihalyi |first1=Mihaly |title=The Systems Model of Creativity: The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi |date=2015 |publisher=Springer}}

Evolutionary political philosophy applies the principles of evolution to the study of political systems. Karl Popper's (1945) book The Open Society and its Enemies presents an evolutionary approach to political philosophy,{{cite book |last1=Popper |first1=Karl |title=The Open Society and its Enemies |date=1945 |publisher=G. Routledge & Sons}} as does David Sloan Wilson's (2019) book This View of Life: Completing the Darwinian Revolution.

The Handbook of Biology and Politics (2017){{cite book |last1=Peterson |first1=S |title=Handbook of Biology and Politics |date=2017 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Limited}} examines biopolitics and the intersection of evolutionary biology and political science.

The edited volume brings together research applying evolutionary and biological insights, to better understand political behaviors, institutions, ideologies and social dynamics.

From 2012{{cite web |last1=Gontier |first1=Nathalie |title=AppEEL - Applied Evolutionary Epistemology Lab {{!}} Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa |url=https://ciencias.ulisboa.pt/en/noticia/07-02-2013/appeel-applied-evolutionary-epistemology-lab |website=ciencias.ulisboa.pt |access-date=7 March 2024}} to 2024 Nathalie Gontier was founder and director of AppEEL, the Applied Evolutionary Epistemology Lab, an international group of scholars working in applied evolutionary epistemology.

In the 2012 article "Applied Evolutionary Epistemology: A New Methodology to Enhance Interdisciplinary Research Between the Life and Human Sciences", Gontier explains how AEE's research program aims to identify: "the units, levels, and mechanisms of biological and sociocultural evolution".{{cite journal |last1=Gontier |first1=Nathalie |title=Applied Evolutionary Epistemology: A new methodology to enhance interdisciplinary research between the life and human sciences |journal=Journal of Philosophy and Science (Kairos. Revista de Filosofia & Ciência) |date=2012 |volume=4 |page=35}}

A 2021 article by Gontier and Michael Bradie examines evolutionary epistemology as "two research avenues, three schools, and a single and shared agenda".{{cite journal |last1=Gontier |first1=Nathalie |last2=Bradie |first2=Michael |title=Evolutionary Epistemology: Two Research Avenues, Three Schools, and A Single and Shared Agenda |journal=Journal for General Philosophy of Science |date=June 2021 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=197–209 |doi=10.1007/s10838-021-09563-5|s2cid=236373484 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GONEET }}

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |last=Bowler |first=Peter J. |author-link=Peter J. Bowler |title=Evolution: The History of an Idea |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-23693-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8 }}
• {{cite book |last=Jensen |first=Uffe Juul |last2=Harré |first2=Rom |title=The Philosophy of Evolution |publisher=St. Martins Press |publication-place=New York |date=1981 |isbn=978-0-312-60670-1 |ref=none}}
• {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |author-link=Edward J. Larson |year=2004 |title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory |series=Modern Library Chronicles |volume=17 |location=New York |publisher=Modern Library |isbn=978-0-679-64288-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars}}
• {{cite book |last=Ruse |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Ruse |date=1996 |title=Monad to man: the Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/monadtomanconcep0000ruse |url-access=registration |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03248-4 }}

• {{cite book |last1=Hösle |first1=V. |last2=Illies |first2=C. (Eds.) 2005 |title=Darwinism & Philosophy |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |ref=none}}
• {{cite book |last1=Hull |first1=D. L. |last2=Ruse |first2=M. |year=2007 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=none}}
• {{cite book |last1=Hull |first1=D. L. |last2=Ruse |first2=M. |year=1998 |title=The Philosophy of Biology |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=none}}
• {{cite book |last1=Rosenberg |first1=A. |last2=McShea |first2=D. W. |year=2008 |title=Philosophy of Biology: A Contemporary Introduction |publisher=Routledge |ref=none}}

• {{SEP|evolution|Evolution}}

Category:Evolution

Category:Concepts in the philosophy of science

Category:Philosophy of science