plant perception (physiology)

{{Main|Phototropism|photomorphogenesis|photoperiodism|shade avoidance}}

File:Sonnenblume-hjf.jpg plant which perceives and reacts to sunlight by slow turning movement]]

Many plant organs contain photoreceptors (phototropins, cryptochromes, and phytochromes), each of which reacts very specifically to certain wavelengths of light.{{cite journal | vauthors = Harmer SL, Panda S, Kay SA | title = Molecular bases of circadian rhythms | journal = Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology | volume = 17 | pages = 215–53 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11687489 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.17.1.215 }} These light sensors tell the plant if it is day or night, how long the day is, how much light is available, and where the light is coming from. Shoots generally grow towards light, while roots grow away from it, responses known as phototropism and skototropism, respectively. They are brought about by light-sensitive pigments like phototropins and phytochromes and the plant hormone auxin.{{cite journal|last1=Strong|first1=Donald R.|last2=Ray|first2=Thomas S.|authorlink2=Thomas S. Ray|title=Host Tree Location Behavior of a Tropical Vine (Monstera gigantea) by Skototropism|journal=Science|date=1 January 1975|volume=190|issue=4216|pages=804–806|doi=10.1126/science.190.4216.804 |jstor=1741614|bibcode=1975Sci...190..804S|s2cid=84386403}}

Many plants exhibit certain behaviors at specific times of the day; for example, flowers that open only in the mornings. Plants keep track of the time of day with a circadian clock. This internal clock is synchronized with solar time every day using sunlight, temperature, and other cues, similar to the biological clocks present in other organisms. The internal clock coupled with the ability to perceive light also allows plants to measure the time of the day and so determine the season of the year. This is how many plants know when to flower (see photoperiodism). The seeds of many plants sprout only after they are exposed to light. This response is carried out by phytochrome signalling. Plants are also able to sense the quality of light and respond appropriately. For example, in low light conditions, plants produce more photosynthetic pigments. If the light is very bright or if the levels of harmful ultraviolet radiation increase, plants produce more of their protective pigments that act as sunscreens.{{cite journal | last1 = Strid | first1 = Åke | last2 = Porra | first2 = Robert J. | name-list-style = vanc | year = 1992 | title = Alterations in Pigment Content in Leaves of Pisum sativum After Exposure to Supplementary UV-B | url = http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/33/7/1015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100426073213/http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/33/7/1015 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2010-04-26 | journal = Plant and Cell Physiology | volume = 33 | issue = 7| pages = 1015–1023 }}

Studies on the vine Boquila trifoliata has raised questions on the mode by which they are able to perceive and mimic the shape of the leaves of the plant upon which they climb. Experiments have shown that they even mimic the shape of plastic leaves when trained on them.{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Jacob |last2=Yamashita |first2=Felipe |date=2022-12-31 |title=Boquila trifoliolata mimics leaves of an artificial plastic host plant |journal=Plant Signaling & Behavior |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/15592324.2021.1977530 |issn=1559-2324 |pmc=8903786 |pmid=34545774|bibcode=2022PlSiB..1777530W }} Suggestions have even been made that plants might have a form of vision.{{Cite journal |last1=Baluška |first1=Frantisek |last2=Mancuso |first2=Stefano |date=2016 |title=Vision in Plants via Plant-Specific Ocelli? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1360138516300930 |journal=Trends in Plant Science |language=en |volume=21 |issue=9 |pages=727–730 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2016.07.008|pmid=27491517 |bibcode=2016TPS....21..727B |url-access=subscription }}

{{Main|Gravitropism}}

To orient themselves correctly, plants must be able to sense the direction of gravity. The subsequent response is known as gravitropism.

In roots, gravity is sensed and translated in the root tip, which then grows by elongating in the direction of gravity. In shoots, growth occurs in the opposite direction, a phenomenon known as negative gravitropism.{{cite book | title = Biological science | last = Freeman | first = Scott | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Pearson | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-321-74367-1 | location = Illinois | pages = 803 | oclc = 821271420 }} Poplar stems can detect reorientation and inclination (equilibrioception) through gravitropism.{{cite journal | vauthors = Azri W, Chambon C, Herbette S, Brunel N, Coutand C, Leplé JC, Ben Rejeb I, Ammar S, Julien JL, Roeckel-Drevet P | title = Proteome analysis of apical and basal regions of poplar stems under gravitropic stimulation | journal = Physiologia Plantarum | volume = 136 | issue = 2 | pages = 193–208 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19453506 | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2009.01230.x }}

File:Grapevines intelligent growth 1.jpg) tendril. Note how the plant reaches for and wraps around the galvanised wire provided for the purpose. This is a very tough twig and appears to have no other purpose than support for the plant. Nothing else grows from it. It must reach out softly, then wrap around and then dry and toughen. See more at thigmotropism.]]

At the root tip, amyloplasts containing starch granules fall in the direction of gravity. This weight activates secondary receptors, which signal to the plant the direction of the gravitational pull. After this occurs, auxin is redistributed through polar auxin transport and differential growth towards gravity begins. In the shoots, auxin redistribution occurs in a way to produce differential growth away from gravity.

For perception to occur, the plant often must be able to sense, perceive, and translate the direction of gravity. Without gravity, proper orientation will not occur and the plant will not effectively grow. The root will not be able to uptake nutrients or water, and the shoot will not grow towards the sky to maximize photosynthesis.{{cite journal | vauthors = Perrin RM, Young LS, Murthy UM, Harrison BR, Wang Y, Will JL, Masson PH | title = Gravity signal transduction in primary roots | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 96 | issue = 5 | pages = 737–43 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16033778 | pmc = 4247041 | doi = 10.1093/aob/mci227 }}

{{Main|Thigmotropism|thigmomorphogenesis}}

All plants are able to sense touch.{{Cite journal |last=Braam |first=Janet |date=February 2005 |title=In touch: plant responses to mechanical stimuli |journal=New Phytologist |language=en |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=373–389 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01263.x |pmid=15720650 |issn=0028-646X|doi-access=free }} Thigmotropism is directional movement that occurs in plants responding to physical touch.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaffe MJ, Forbes S | title = Thigmomorphogenesis: the effect of mechanical perturbation on plants | journal = Plant Growth Regulation | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 313–24 | date = February 1993 | pmid = 11541741 | doi = 10.1007/BF00027213 | s2cid = 29466083 }} Climbing plants, such as tomatoes, exhibit thigmotropism, allowing them to curl around objects. These responses are generally slow (on the order of multiple hours), and can best be observed with time-lapse cinematography, but rapid movements can occur as well. For example, the so-called "sensitive plant" (Mimosa pudica) responds to even the slightest physical touch by quickly folding its thin pinnate leaves such that they point downwards,{{cite news |last=Fearnley |first=Kirsten |url=https://www.aaas.org/news/weird-wonderful-creatures-sensitive-plant |title=Weird & Wonderful Creatures: The Sensitive Plant |work=American Association for the Advancement of Science |publisher=American AAAS |date=2016-05-03 |access-date=2021-02-23 |quote=when it is touched, its leaves fold up and its branches droop, leaving it looking dead or sick in a matter of seconds }} and carnivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) produce specialized leaf structures that snap shut when touched or landed upon by insects. In the Venus flytrap, touch is detected by cilia lining the inside of the specialized leaves, which generate an action potential that stimulates motor cells and causes movement to occur.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Volkov AG, Adesina T, Jovanov E |date=1 May 2007|title=Closing of Venus Flytrap by Electrical Stimulation of Motor Cells | doi = 10.4161/psb.2.3.4217 |pmid=19516982| journal=Plant Signaling & Behavior|volume=2|issue=3|pages=139–145|via=Taylor & Francis Group|pmc=2634039|bibcode=2007PlSiB...2..139V }}

Wounded or infected plants produce distinctive volatile odors, (e.g. methyl jasmonate, methyl salicylate, green leaf volatiles), which can in turn be perceived by neighboring plants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Farmer EE, Ryan CA | title = Interplant communication: airborne methyl jasmonate induces synthesis of proteinase inhibitors in plant leaves | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 87 | issue = 19 | pages = 7713–6 | date = October 1990 | pmid = 11607107 | pmc = 54818 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.87.19.7713 | bibcode = 1990PNAS...87.7713F| doi-access = free }}Mirabella, R., H. Rauwerda, S. Allmann, A. Scala, E. A. Spyropoulou, M. de Vries, M. R. Boersma, T. M. Breit, M. A. Haring, and R. C. Schuurink. 2015. WRKY40 and WRKY6 act downstream of the green leaf volatile E-2-hexenal in Arabidopsis. The Plant Journal 83:1082–1096. Plants detecting these sorts of volatile signals often respond by increasing their chemical defences and/or prepare for attack by producing chemicals which defend against insects or attract insect predators.

Plants upregulate chemical defenses such as glucosinolate and anthocyanin in response to vibrations created during herbivory.{{Cite journal |last1=Appel |first1=H. M. |last2=Cocroft |first2=R. B. |date=2014 |title=Plants respond to leaf vibrations caused by insect herbivore chewing |journal=Oecologia |volume=175 |issue=4 |pages=1257–1266 |doi=10.1007/s00442-014-2995-6 |issn=0029-8549 |pmc=4102826 |pmid=24985883|bibcode=2014Oecol.175.1257A }}

{{Further|Plant hormone}}

Plants systematically use hormonal signalling pathways to coordinate their development and morphology.

Plants produce several signal molecules usually associated with animal nervous systems, such as glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, melatonin, and serotonin.Akula, R., and S. Mukherjee. 2020. New insights on neurotransmitters signaling mechanisms in plants. Plant Signaling & Behavior 15:1737450. Taylor & Francis.

They may also use ATP, NO, and ROS for signaling in similar ways as animals do.{{cite book | vauthors = Baluška F, Volkmann D, Mancuso S | year = 2006 | title = Communication in Plants: Neuronal Aspects of Plant Life. | publisher = Springer Verlag | isbn = 978-3-540-28475-8 }}

Plants have a variety of methods of delivering electrical signals. The four commonly recognized propagation methods include action potentials (APs), variation potentials (VPs), local electric potentials (LEPs), and systemic potentials (SPs){{Cite journal|last1=Fromm|first1=Jörg|last2=Lautner|first2=Silke|date=March 2007|title=Electrical signals and their physiological significance in plants: Electrical signals in plants|journal=Plant, Cell & Environment|volume=30|issue=3|pages=249–257|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3040.2006.01614.x|pmid=17263772|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Huber|first1=Annika E.|last2=Bauerle|first2=Taryn L.|date=March 2016|title=Long-distance plant signaling pathways in response to multiple stressors: the gap in knowledge|journal=Journal of Experimental Botany|volume=67|issue=7|pages=2063–2079|doi=10.1093/jxb/erw099|pmid=26944636|issn=0022-0957|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Szechyńska-Hebda|first1=Magdalena|last2=Lewandowska|first2=Maria|last3=Karpiński|first3=Stanisław|date=14 September 2017|title=Electrical Signaling, Photosynthesis and Systemic Acquired Acclimation|journal=Frontiers in Physiology|volume=8|page=684|doi=10.3389/fphys.2017.00684|pmid=28959209|issn=1664-042X|pmc=5603676|doi-access=free}}

Although plant cells are not neurons, they can be electrically excitable and can display rapid electrical responses in the form of APs to environmental stimuli. APs allow for the movement of signaling ions and molecules from the pre-potential cell to the post-potential cell(s). These electrophysiological signals are constituted by gradient fluxes of ions such as H⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, Na⁺, and Ca²⁺ but it is also thought that other electrically charge ions such as Fe³⁺, Al³⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Mn²⁺, and Hg²⁺ may also play a role in downstream outputs.{{Cite journal|last1=Awan|first1=Hamdan|last2=Adve|first2=Raviraj S.|last3=Wallbridge|first3=Nigel|last4=Plummer|first4=Carrol|last5=Eckford|first5=Andrew W.|date=January 2019|title=Communication and Information Theory of Single Action Potential Signals in Plants|journal=IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience|volume=18|issue=1|pages=61–73|doi=10.1109/tnb.2018.2880924|pmid=30442613|issn=1536-1241|arxiv=1811.03612|s2cid=53210689}} The maintenance of each ions electrochemical gradient is vital in the health of the cell in that if the cell would ever reach equilibrium with its environment, it is dead.{{Cite journal|last1=Baluška|first1=František|last2=Mancuso|first2=Stefano|date=1 January 2013|title=Ion channels in plants|journal=Plant Signaling & Behavior|volume=8|issue=1|pages=e23009|doi=10.4161/psb.23009|pmc=3745586|pmid=23221742|bibcode=2013PlSiB...8E3009B }}{{Cite journal|last=Loof|first=Arnold De|date=2 September 2016|title=The cell's self-generated "electrome": The biophysical essence of the immaterial dimension of Life?|journal=Communicative & Integrative Biology|volume=9|issue=5|pages=e1197446|doi=10.1080/19420889.2016.1197446|pmc=5100658|pmid=27829975}} This dead state can be due to a variety of reasons such as ion channel blocking or membrane puncturing.

These electrophysiological ions bind to receptors on the receiving cell causing downstream effects result from one or a combination of molecules present. This means of transferring information and activating physiological responses via a signaling molecule system has been found to be faster and more frequent in the presence of APs.

These action potentials can influence processes such as actin-based cytoplasmic streaming, plant organ movements, wound responses, respiration, photosynthesis, and flowering.{{cite book | vauthors = Wagner E, Lehner L, Normann J, Veit J, Albrechtova J | year = 2006 | chapter = Hydroelectrochemical integration of the higher plant—basis for electrogenic flower induction | pages = 369–389 | veditors = Baluska F, Mancuso S, Volkmann D | title = Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of plant life | publisher = Springer | location = Berlin }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Fromm J, Lautner S | title = Electrical signals and their physiological significance in plants | journal = Plant, Cell & Environment | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 249–257 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17263772 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2006.01614.x | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Zimmermann MR, Maischak H, Mithöfer A, Boland W, Felle HH | title = System potentials, a novel electrical long-distance apoplastic signal in plants, induced by wounding | journal = Plant Physiology | volume = 149 | issue = 3 | pages = 1593–600 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19129416 | pmc = 2649404 | doi = 10.1104/pp.108.133884 }}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Pickard BG | title = Action Potentials in Higher Plants| jstor = 4353850| journal = Botanical Review| volume = 39| issue = 2| pages = 172–201| year = 1973| doi = 10.1007/BF02859299| bibcode = 1973BotRv..39..172P| s2cid = 5026557}} These electrical responses can cause the synthesis of numerous organic molecules, including ones that act as neuroactive substances in other organisms such as calcium ions.{{cite journal |title=Herbivore-Triggered Electrophysiological Reactions: Candidates for Systemic Signals in Higher Plants and the Challenge of Their Identification |journal=Plant Physiology |date=2016-02-12 |last1=Zimmermann |first1=Matthias |last2=Mithöfer |first2=Axel |last3= Will |first3=Torsten |last4=Felle |first4=Hubert |last5=Furch |first5=Alexandra |volume=170 |issue=4 |pages= 2407–2419 |doi=10.1104/pp.15.01736 |pmid=26872949 |pmc=4825135 }}

The ion flux across cells also influence the movement of other molecules and solutes. This changes the osmotic gradient of the cell, resulting in changes to turgor pressure in plant cells by water and solute flux across cell membranes. These variations are vital for nutrient uptake, growth, many types of movements (tropisms and nastic movements) among other basic plant physiology and behavior.{{Cite journal|last=Segal Anthony W.|title=NADPH oxidases as electrochemical generators to produce ion fluxes and turgor in fungi, plants and humans|journal=Open Biology|volume=6|issue=5|pages=160028|doi=10.1098/rsob.160028|pmc=4892433|pmid=27249799|year=2016}}{{Cite book|title=Physiology and Behaviour of Plants|last=Scott|first=Peter|publisher=John Wiley and Sons, Ltd|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-85024-4|location=West Sussex, England}} (Higinbotham 1973; Scott 2008; Segal 2016).

Thus, plants achieve behavioural responses in environmental, communicative, and ecological contexts.

Plant behavior is mediated by phytochromes, kinins, hormones, antibiotic or other chemical release, changes of water and chemical transport, and other means.

Plants have many strategies to fight off pests. For example, they can produce a slew of different chemical toxins against predators and parasites or they can induce rapid cell death to prevent the spread of infectious agents. Plants can also respond to volatile signals produced by other plants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Farmer EE, Ryan CA | title = Interplant communication: airborne methyl jasmonate induces synthesis of proteinase inhibitors in plant leaves | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 87 | issue = 19 | pages = 7713–6 | date = October 1990 | pmid = 11607107 | pmc = 54818 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.87.19.7713 | bibcode = 1990PNAS...87.7713F | doi-access = free }}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Karban R, Baxter KJ | journal = Journal of Insect Behavior| volume = 14| issue = 2| pages = 147–156|title=Induced Resistance in Wild Tobacco with Clipped Sagebrush Neighbors: The Role of Herbivore Behavior| year = 2001| doi = 10.1023/A:1007893626166| s2cid = 33992175}} Jasmonate levels also increase rapidly in response to mechanical perturbations such as tendril coiling.{{cite journal | vauthors = Falkenstein E, Groth B, Mithöfer A, Weiler EW | title = Methyljasmonate and α-linolenic acid are potent inducers of tendril coiling | journal = Planta | volume = 185 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–22 | date = October 1991 | pmid = 24186412 | doi = 10.1007/BF00201050 | s2cid = 23326940 }}

In plants, the mechanism responsible for adaptation is signal transduction.{{Cite book | vauthors = Scheel D, Wasternack C |title=Plant signal transduction | url = https://archive.org/details/plantsignaltrans0000unse | url-access = registration |year=2002 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-963879-9}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Xiong L, Zhu JK | title = Abiotic stress signal transduction in plants: Molecular and genetic perspectives | journal = Physiologia Plantarum | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–166 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11454221 | doi = 10.1034/j.1399-3054.2001.1120202.x }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Clark GB, Thompson G, Roux SJ | title = Signal transduction mechanisms in plants: an overview | journal = Current Science | volume = 80 | issue = 2 | pages = 170–7 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 12194182 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Trewavas A | title = How plants learn | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 96 | issue = 8 | pages = 4216–8 | date = April 1999 | pmid = 10200239 | pmc = 33554 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.96.8.4216 | bibcode = 1999PNAS...96.4216T | doi-access = free }} Adaptive responses include:

• Active foraging for light and nutrients. They do this by changing their architecture, e.g. branch growth and direction, physiology, and phenotype.{{cite journal | vauthors = De Kroon H, Hutchings MJ | year = 1995 | jstor = 2261158 | title = Morphological plasticity in clonal plants: the foraging concept reconsidered | journal = J. Ecol. | volume = 83 | issue = 1 | pages = 143–152 | doi = 10.2307/2261158 | bibcode = 1995JEcol..83..143D }}{{Cite journal | vauthors = Grime JP, MacKey JM | journal = Evolutionary Ecology | volume = 16 | issue = 3 |title=The role of plasticity in resource capture by plants| pages = 299–307 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1023/A:1019640813676| bibcode = 2002EvEco..16..299G | s2cid = 20183179 }}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Hutchings M, Dekroon H | title = Foraging in Plants: the Role of Morphological Plasticity in Resource Acquisition| volume = 25| pages = 159–238| year = 1994| doi = 10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60215-9| journal=Advances in Ecological Research| isbn = 9780120139255}}
• Leaves and branches being positioned and oriented in response to a light source.{{cite journal | vauthors = Honda H, Fisher JB | title = Tree branch angle: maximizing effective leaf area | journal = Science | volume = 199 | issue = 4331 | pages = 888–90 | date = February 1978 | pmid = 17757590 | doi = 10.1126/science.199.4331.888 | bibcode = 1978Sci...199..888H | s2cid = 44773996 }}
• Detecting soil volume and adapting growth accordingly, independently of nutrient availability.{{Cite journal | vauthors = McConnaughay KD, Bazzaz FA | title = Is Physical Space a Soil Resource?| jstor = 1938905| journal = Ecology| volume = 72| issue = 1| pages = 94–103| year = 1991| doi = 10.2307/1938905| bibcode = 1991Ecol...72...94M}}{{Cite journal | vauthors = McConnaughay KD, Bazzaz FA | title = The Occupation and Fragmentation of Space: Consequences of Neighbouring Shoots| jstor = 2389968| journal = Functional Ecology| volume = 6| issue = 6| pages = 711–718| year = 1992| doi = 10.2307/2389968| bibcode = 1992FuEco...6..711M}}{{Cite journal | vauthors = Schenk H, Callaway R, Mahall B | title = Spatial Root Segregation: Are Plants Territorial?| volume = 28| pages = 145–180| year = 1999| doi = 10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60032-X | journal=Advances in Ecological Research| isbn = 9780120139286}}
• Defending against herbivores.

{{div col|colwidth=32em}}

• Auxin
• Chemotropism
• Ethylene
• Gravitropism
• Heliotropism
• Hydrotropism
• Hypersensitive response
• Kairomone
• Kinesis (biology)
• Nastic movements
• Phytosemiotics
• Plant defense against herbivory
• Plant evolutionary developmental biology
• Plant intelligence
• Plant tolerance to herbivory
• Rapid plant movement
• Statocyte
• Stoma
• Systemic acquired resistance
• Taxis
• Thermotropism
• Tropism

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|32em}}

{{refbegin|32em}}

• Baluška F (ed) (2009). Plant-Environment Interactions: From Sensory Plant Biology to Active Plant Behavior. Springer Verlag.
• Gilroy S, Masson PH (2007). Plant Tropisms. Iowa State University Press.
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Karban R | title = Plant behaviour and communication | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 727–39 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18400016 | doi = 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01183.x | bibcode = 2008EcolL..11..727K | doi-access = free }}
• Karban R (2015). Plant Sensing and Communication. University of Chicago Press.
• Mancuso S, Shabala S (2006). Rhythms in Plants. Springer Verlag.
• Scott P (2008). Physiology and Behaviour of Plants. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Trewavas A | title = What is plant behaviour? | journal = Plant, Cell & Environment | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 606–16 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19143994 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2009.01929.x | doi-access = free }}
• Volkov AG (2006). Plant Electrophysiology. Springer Verlag.
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Volkov AG, Carrell H, Adesina T, Markin VS, Jovanov E | title = Plant electrical memory | journal = Plant Signaling & Behavior | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = 490–2 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 19704496 | pmc = 2634440 | doi = 10.4161/psb.3.7.5684 | bibcode = 2008PlSiB...3..490V }}
• {{Cite book | editor-last = Keen | editor-first = Noel T | editor-first2 = Shigeyuki | editor-last2 = Mayama | editor-first3 = Jan E. | editor-last3 = Leach | editor-first4 = Shinji | editor-last4 = Tsujumu | name-list-style = vanc | title = Delivery and Perception of Pathogen Signals in Plants | publisher = APS Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-89054-259-7 | page = 268 }}
• {{Cite book | last1 = Taiz | first1 = Lincoln | first2 = Eduardo | last2 = Zeiger | name-list-style = vanc | title = Plant Physiology, fourth edition | publisher = Sinauer Associates | year = 2006 | url = http://www.sinauer.com/detail.php?id=8567 | isbn = 0-87893-856-7 | page = 700 (est) }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Miller D, Hable W, Gottwald J, Ellard-Ivey M, Demura T, Lomax T, Carpita N | title = Connections: the hard wiring of the plant cell for perception, signaling, and response | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 9 | issue = 12 | pages = 2105–17 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9437857 | pmc = 157061 | doi = 10.1105/tpc.9.12.2105}}
• {{Cite book | first1 = Dierk | last1 = Scheel | first2 = Claus | last2 = Wastermack | name-list-style = vanc | title = Plant Signal Transduction | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = May 2002 | url = http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/LifeSciences/Botany/?view=usa&ci=9780199638796 | isbn = 978-0-19-963879-6 | access-date = 25 December 2006 | page = 346 }}
• {{cite book | last1 = Taiz | first1 = Lincoln | first2 = Eduardo | last2 = Zeiger | name-list-style = vanc | title = Plant Physiology Online: A companion to Plant Physiology | edition = Third | publisher = Sinauer Associates | year = 2002 | url = http://3e.plantphys.net/book.php | access-date = 26 December 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061207153105/http://3e.plantphys.net/book.php |archive-date = 7 December 2006}}

{{refend}}

• [http://www.scienceline.org/2010/03/14/how-does-a-venus-flytrap-work/ How Does a Venus Flytrap Work?]

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