political engineering

In political science, political engineering is the designing of political institutions in a society and often involves the use of paper decrees, in the form of laws, referendums, ordinances, or otherwise, to try to achieve some desired effect.[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/undergrad/syllabi/V53.0810_brams_s05.pdf Political Engineering: The Design of Institutions, Dr. Jeffrey R. Lax, Department of Politics, New York University]{{cite book|author1=James T. Myers|author2=Jürgen Domes|author3=Erik Von Groeling|title=Chinese Politics: Documents and Analysis : Fall of Hua Kuo-Feng (1980) to the Twelfth Party Congress (1982)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipHX7n55ISIC&pg=PA163|accessdate=6 March 2013|date=1 December 1995|publisher=Univ of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-063-5|page=163|quote=This prompted Lin Biao decision to take action to assassinate Chairman Mao Zedong and engineer an armed coup d'etat. }}{{cite book |author=Francis Augustin Akindès |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Anai%3Adiva-96 |title=The Roots of the MilitaryPolitical Crises in Côte d'Ivoire |publisher=Nordic Africa Institute |year=2004 |isbn=978-91-7106-531-5 |pages=7– |quote=Houphouet Boigny left behind a political legacy, a leadership style, or rather a form of political engineering, known as Houphouetism |accessdate=6 March 2013}}

The criteria and constraints used in such design vary depending on the optimization methods used. Usually democratic political systems have not been deemed suitable as subjects of political engineering methods.[http://meaindia.nic.in/opinion/2002/11/19o03.htm Specimen of Political engineering: The Pioneer, 2002] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314142156/http://meaindia.nic.in/opinion/2002/11/19o03.htm |date=2008-03-14 }} Quote: "The ISI's political department has long been known to indulge in "political engineering" (a decent-sounding nomenclature for the dirty tricks it indulges in) having sent former prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to the gallows and helped overthrow both Ms Benazir Bhutto and former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and bring General Musharraf to power in a bloodless coup."[https://web.archive.org/web/20061201045935/http://www.bt.undp.org/Democracy/Political+Engineering+of+Parties+and+Party+Systems.pdf Political Engineering of Parties and Party Systems, Benjamin Reilly Ph.D.] Quote: "Because political parties in theory represent the political expression of underlying societal cleavages (Lipset and Rokkan 1967), parties and party systems have not usually been thought to be amenable to overt political engineering. While some authoritarian states have attempted to control the development of their party system (e.g. the mandated ‘two-party’ or ‘threeparty’ systems that existed under military rule in Nigeria and Indonesia respectively, or 1 For what is still the best discussion of ethnic parties and party systems, see Horowitz 1985. 2 See, for example, Sartori 1994, Diamond 1999, Reynolds 2002. 3 the ‘no-party’ system that currently exists in Uganda), most democracies allow parties to develop freely. Because of this, parties are generally understood to remain beyond the reach of formal political engineering in most circumstances. Recent years, however, have seen some ambitious attempts to influence the development of party systems in a range of ethnically-diverse countries such as Indonesia, Nigeria, the Philippines, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Papua New Guinea. In the discussion of these and other cases which follows, this paper presents an initial survey of some the different institutional and political strategies for encouraging the development of broad, crossregional or multi-ethnic parties and party systems that have been used around the world." Political engineering can also be employed to design alternative voting procedures in a democratic system.Reilly, B., 1997. Preferential voting and political engineering: A comparative study. Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 35(1), pp.1-19. doi: [https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14662049708447736 10.1080/14662049708447736] Archived page:https://web.archive.org/web/20080314154825/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3504/is_199703/ai_n8303088