potassium-ion battery

The prototype device used a potassium anode and a Prussian blue compound as the cathode material{{cite journal |last1=Eftekhari |first1=A |year=2004 |title=Potassium secondary cell based on Prussian blue cathode |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume= 126|issue= 1|pages=221–228 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.08.007|bibcode=2004JPS...126..221E}} for its high electrochemical stability.{{cite journal |last1=Itaya |first1=K |last2=Ataka |first2=T |last3=Toshima |first3=S |year=1982 |title=Spectroelectrochemistry and electrochemical preparation method of Prussian Blue modified electrodes |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=104 |issue=18 |page=4767 |doi=10.1021/ja00382a006}} The prototype was successfully used for more than 500 cycles. A recent review showed currently that several pragmatic materials have been successfully used as the anode and cathode for the new generations of potassium-ion batteries.{{cite journal |last1=Eftekhari |first1=A |last2=Jian |first2=Z |last3=Ji |first3=X |year=2017 |title=Potassium Secondary Batteries |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=4404–4419 |doi=10.1021/acsami.6b07989|pmid=27714999 }} For example, the conventional anode material graphite has been shown that it can be used as an anode in a potassium-ion battery.{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=W |last2=Wan |first2=J |last3=Ozdemir |first3=B |year=2015 |title=Potassium Ion Batteries with Graphitic Materials |journal=Nano Letters |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=7671–7 |doi=10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03667|pmid=26509225 |bibcode=2015NanoL..15.7671L }}

In 2024, Group1, created Kristonite for the cathode.

After the invention of potassium-ion battery with the prototype device, researchers have increasingly been focusing on enhancing the specific capacity and cycling performance with the application of new materials to electrodes (anode and cathode) and electrolyte.

A general picture of the material used for potassium-ion battery can be found as follows:

Besides the original Prussian blue cathode and its analogs, researches on cathode part of potassium ion battery focus on engineering.

Kristonite is a 4V cathode material — in the class of potassium prussian white (KPW) materials.

Another nanostructure and solid ionics appeared. A series of potassium transition metal oxide such as {{chem2|K0.3MnO2}}, {{chem2|K0.55CoO2}} have been demonstrated as cathode material with a layered structure.{{Cite journal|last1=Pramudita|first1=James C.|last2=Sehrawat|first2=Divya|last3=Goonetilleke|first3=Damian|last4=Sharma|first4=Neeraj|date=2017|title=An Initial Review of the Status of Electrode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries|journal=Advanced Energy Materials|language=en|volume=7|issue=24|pages=1602911|doi=10.1002/aenm.201602911|issn=1614-6840|doi-access=|bibcode=2017AdEnM...702911P }} Polyanionic compounds with inductive defects could provide the highest working voltage among other types of cathode for potassium-ion batteries. During the electrochemical cycling process, its crystal structure will be distorted to created more induced defects upon the insertion of potassium ion. Recham et al first demonstrated that fluorosulfates have a reversible intercalation mechanism with K, Na and Li, since then, other polyanionic compound such as {{chem2|K3V2(PO4)3}}, {{chem2|KVPO4F}} have been studied, while still limited to the complex synthesis process.{{Cite journal|last1=Recham|first1=Nadir|last2=Rousse|first2=Gwenaëlle|last3=Sougrati|first3=Moulay T.|last4=Chotard|first4=Jean-Noël|last5=Frayret|first5=Christine|last6=Mariyappan|first6=Sathiya|last7=Melot|first7=Brent C.|last8=Jumas|first8=Jean-Claude|last9=Tarascon|first9=Jean-Marie|date=2012-11-27|title=Preparation and Characterization of a Stable FeSO4F-Based Framework for Alkali Ion Insertion Electrodes|journal=Chemistry of Materials|volume=24|issue=22|pages=4363–4370|doi=10.1021/cm302428w|issn=0897-4756|url=https://figshare.com/articles/Preparation_and_Characterization_of_a_Stable_FeSO_sub_4_sub_F_Based_Framework_for_Alkali_Ion_Insertion_Electrodes/2465359}}{{Cite journal|last=Fedotov|first=S|date=2016|title=AVPO4F (A = Li, K): A 4 V Cathode Material for High-Power Rechargeable Batteries|journal=Chemistry of Materials|volume=28|issue=2|pages=411–415|doi=10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b04065|doi-access=free|hdl=10067/1315830151162165141|hdl-access=free}} Worth noting is an orthodox approach of using organic compound as cathode for potassium-ion battery, such as PTCDA, a red pigment which can bond with 11 potassium ion within single molecule.{{Cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Yanan|last2=Luo|first2=Wei|last3=Carter|first3=Marcus|last4=Zhou|first4=Lihui|last5=Dai|first5=Jiaqi|last6=Fu|first6=Kun|last7=Lacey|first7=Steven|last8=Li|first8=Tian|last9=Wan|first9=Jiayu|last10=Han|first10=Xiaogang|last11=Bao|first11=Yanping|date=2015-11-01|title=Organic electrode for non-aqueous potassium-ion batteries|journal=Nano Energy|volume=18|pages=205–211|doi=10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.10.015|bibcode=2015NEne...18..205C |issn=2211-2855}} Classic alloying anodes such as Si, Sb and Sn that can form alloy with lithium ion during cycling process are also applicable for potassium-ion battery. Among them Sb is the most promising candidate due to its low cost and the theoretical capacity up to 660 mAh g⁻¹.{{Cite journal|last1=An|first1=Yongling|last2=Tian|first2=Yuan|last3=Ci|first3=Lijie|last4=Xiong|first4=Shenglin|last5=Feng|first5=Jinkui|last6=Qian|first6=Yitai|date=2018-12-26|title=Micron-Sized Nanoporous Antimony with Tunable Porosity for High-Performance Potassium-Ion Batteries|journal=ACS Nano|volume=12|issue=12|pages=12932–12940|doi=10.1021/acsnano.8b08740|pmid=30481455|s2cid=53747530 |issn=1936-0851}} Other organic compounds are also being developed to achieve strong mechanical strength as well as maintaining decent performance.{{Cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Xiudong|last2=Zhang|first2=Hang|last3=Ci|first3=Chenggang|last4=Sun|first4=Weiwei|last5=Wang|first5=Yong|date=2019-03-26|title=Few-Layered Boronic Ester Based Covalent Organic Frameworks/Carbon Nanotube Composites for High-Performance K-Organic Batteries|journal=ACS Nano|volume=13|issue=3|pages=3600–3607|doi=10.1021/acsnano.9b00165|pmid=30807104|s2cid=73488846 |issn=1936-0851}}

Same as the case of lithium-ion battery, graphite could also accommodate the intercalation of potassium within electrochemical process.{{Cite journal|last1=Jian|first1=Zelang|last2=Luo|first2=Wei|last3=Ji|first3=Xiulei|date=2015-09-16|title=Carbon Electrodes for K-Ion Batteries|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=137|issue=36|pages=11566–11569|doi=10.1021/jacs.5b06809|pmid=26333059|issn=0002-7863}} Whereas with different kinetics, graphite anodes suffer from low capacity retention during cycling within potassium-ion batteries. Thus, the approach of structure engineering of graphite anode is needed to achieve stable performance. Other types of carbonaceous materials besides graphite have been employed as anode material for potassium-ion battery, such as expanded graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers and also nitrogen or phosphorus-doped carbon materials.{{Cite journal|last1=Hwang|first1=Jang-Yeon|last2=Myung|first2=Seung-Taek|last3=Sun|first3=Yang-Kook|date=2018|title=Recent Progress in Rechargeable Potassium Batteries|journal=Advanced Functional Materials|language=en|volume=28|issue=43|pages=1802938|doi=10.1002/adfm.201802938|s2cid=106292273 |issn=1616-3028}} Conversion anodes which can form compound with potassium ion with boosted storage capacity and reversibility have also been studied to fit for potassium-ion battery. To buffer the volume change of conversion anode, a carbon material matrix is always applied such as {{chem2|MoS2@rGO}}, {{chem2|Sb2S3\-SNG}}, {{chem2|SnS2\-rGO}} and so on.{{Cite journal|last1=Eftekhari|first1=Ali|last2=Jian|first2=Zelang|last3=Ji|first3=Xiulei|date=2017-02-08|title=Potassium Secondary Batteries|journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces|volume=9|issue=5|pages=4404–4419|doi=10.1021/acsami.6b07989|pmid=27714999|issn=1944-8244}}

Due to the chemical activity higher than lithium, electrolytes for potassium ion battery requires more delicate engineering to address safety concerns. Commercial ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) or other traditional ether/ester liquid electrolyte showed poor cycling performance and fast capacity degradation due to the Lewis acidity of potassium, also the highly flammable feature of it has prevented further application. Ionic liquid electrolyte offers new way to expand electrochemical window of potassium ion battery with much negative redox voltage and it's especially stable with graphite anode.{{Cite journal|last1=Beltrop|first1=K.|last2=Beuker|first2=S.|last3=Heckmann|first3=A.|last4=Winter|first4=M.|last5=Placke|first5=T.|date=2017|title=Alternative electrochemical energy storage: potassium-based dual-graphite batteries|journal=Energy & Environmental Science|language=en|volume=10|issue=10|pages=2090–2094|doi=10.1039/C7EE01535F|issn=1754-5692}} Recently, solid polymer electrolyte for all-solid-state potassium-ion battery have attracted much attention due to its flexibility and enhanced safety, Feng et al proposed a poly (propylene carbonate)-KFSI solid polymer electrolyte with the frame work of cellulose non-woven membrane, with boosted ionic conductivity of 1.36$\backslash times$10⁻⁵ S cm⁻¹.{{Cite journal|last1=Fei|first1=Huifang|last2=Liu|first2=Yining|last3=An|first3=Yongling|last4=Xu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Zeng|first5=Guifang|last6=Tian|first6=Yuan|last7=Ci|first7=Lijie|last8=Xi|first8=Baojuan|last9=Xiong|first9=Shenglin|last10=Feng|first10=Jinkui|date=2018-09-30|title=Stable all-solid-state potassium battery operating at room temperature with a composite polymer electrolyte and a sustainable organic cathode|journal=Journal of Power Sources|volume=399|pages=294–298|doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.124|bibcode=2018JPS...399..294F |s2cid=105472842 |issn=0378-7753}} Research on electrolyte for potassium-ion battery is focusing on achieving fast ion diffusion kinetics, stable SEI formation as well as enhanced safety.

Along with the sodium ion, potassium-ion is the prime chemistry replacement candidate for lithium-ion batteries.{{cite web |date=8 October 2015 |title=New battery concept: potassium instead of lithium |url=http://www.sunwindenergy.com/review/new-battery-concept-potassium-instead-lithium}} The potassium-ion has certain advantages over similar lithium-ion (e.g., lithium-ion batteries): the cell design is simple and both the material and the fabrication procedures are cheaper. The key advantage is the abundance and low cost of potassium in comparison with lithium, which makes potassium batteries a promising candidate for large scale batteries such as household energy storage and electric vehicles.{{cite web |date=2 December 2016 |title=High-Capacity Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage |url=https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/high-capacity-aqueous-potassium-ion-batteries-for-large-scale-energy-storage/}} Another advantage of a potassium-ion battery over a lithium-ion battery is potentially faster charging.{{cite web |date=20 January 2017 |title=Potassium Ions Charge Li Batteries Faster |url=http://www.upsbatterycenter.com/blog/potassium-ions-charge-li-batteries-faster/}}

The prototype employed a {{chem2|KBF4|link=potassium tetrafluoroborate}} electrolyte, though almost all common electrolyte salts can be used. In addition, ionic liquids have also recently been reported as stable electrolytes with a wide electrochemical window.{{cite journal |date=7 August 2017 |title=Physicochemical and Electrochemical Properties of K[N(SO2F)2]–[N-Methyl-N-propylpyrrolidinium][N(SO2F)2] Ionic Liquids for Potassium-Ion Batteries |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry C |volume=121 |issue=34 |pages=18450–18458 |doi=10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b06523 |last1=Yamamoto |first1=Takayuki |last2=Matsumoto |first2=Kazuhiko |last3=Hagiwara |first3=Rika |last4=Nohira |first4=Toshiyuki |hdl=2433/261771 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |date=20 September 2018 |title=Rechargeable potassium-ion batteries with honeycomb-layered tellurates as high voltage cathodes and fast potassium-ion conductors |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-06343-6 |last1=Masese |first1=Titus |last2=Yoshii |first2=Kazuki |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yoichi |last4=Okumura |first4=Toyoki |last5=Huang |first5=Zhen-Dong |last6=Kato |first6=Minami |last7=Kubota |first7=Keigo |last8=Furutani |first8=Junya |last9=Orikasa |first9=Yuki |last10=Senoh |first10=Hiroshi |last11=Sakaebe |first11=Hikari |last12=Shikano |first12=Masahiro |journal=Nature Communications |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=3823 |pmid=30237549 |pmc=6147795 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.3823M }} The chemical diffusion coefficient of {{chem2|K+}} in the cell is higher than that of {{chem2|Li+}} in lithium batteries, due to a smaller Stokes radius of solvated {{chem2|K+}}. Since the electrochemical potential of {{chem2|K+}} is identical to that of {{chem2|Li+}}, the cell potential is similar to that of lithium-ion. Potassium batteries can accept a wide range of cathode materials which can offer rechargeability lower cost. One noticeable advantage is the availability of potassium graphite, which is used as an anode material in some lithium-ion batteries. Its stable structure guarantees a reversible intercalation/de-intercalation of potassium ions under charge/discharge.

In 2005, a potassium battery that uses molten electrolyte of {{chem2|KPF6|link=Potassium hexafluorophosphate}} was patented.{{patent|US|20090263717|Ramasubramanian, M; Spotnitz, RM}}{{patent|US|2005017219|Li, W; Kohoma, K; Armand, M; Perron, G}} In 2007, Chinese company Starsway Electronics marketed the first potassium battery-powered portable media player as a high-energy device.{{cite web |last1=Melanson |first1=D |date=24 October 2007 |title=China's Starsway touts potassium battery-powered PMP |url=https://www.engadget.com/2007/10/24/chinas-starsway-touts-potassium-battery-powered-pmp |work=Engadget |accessdate=2011-09-16}}

Potassium batteries have been proposed for large-scale energy storage given its exceptional cyclability, but current prototypes only withstand a hundred charging cycles.{{cite web |date=25 November 2011 |title=New Battery Technology Could Provide Large-Scale Energy Storage for the Grid |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/new-battery-technology-could-provide-largescale-energy-storage-for-the-grid}}{{cite web |date=22 November 2011 |title=Battery electrode's 40,000 charge cycles look promising for grid storage |url=https://phys.org/news/2011-11-battery-electrodes-grid-storage.html}}{{Cite web|title=Full Page Reload|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/its-still-early-but-potassium-batteries-are-showing-promise-for-grid-storage|access-date=2020-07-28|website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News|language=en}}

As of 2019, five main issues are preventing widespread use of the K-ion battery technology: low diffusion of potassium ions through a solid electrode, as well as breakdown of the potassium after repeated cycles due to changes in volume, side reactions, growth of dendrites and poor heat dissipation. Researchers estimate that it could take as long as 20 years to figure all these problems out.{{Cite web |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |last2=Phys.org |title=Researchers outline the current state of potassium-ion battery technology |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-05-outline-current-state-potassium-ion-battery.html |access-date=2022-06-19 |website=phys.org |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Wenchao |last2=Liu |first2=Yajie |last3=Guo |first3=Zaiping |date=2019-05-03 |title=Approaching high-performance potassium-ion batteries via advanced design strategies and engineering |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=eaav7412 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aav7412 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=6510555 |pmid=31093528|bibcode=2019SciA....5.7412Z }}

The interesting and unique feature of the potassium-ion battery in comparison with other types of batteries is that life on Earth is based on biological potassium-ion batteries. {{chem2|K+}} is the key charge carrier in plants. Circulation of {{chem2|K+}} ions facilitates energy storage in plants by forming decentralized potassium batteries.{{cite journal |last1=Gajdanowicz |first1=Pawel |year=2010 |title=Potassium (K+) gradients serve as a mobile energy source in plant vascular tissues |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=864–869 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1009777108|pmid=21187374 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108..864G |pmc=3021027|doi-access=free }} This is not only an iconic feature of potassium-ion batteries but also indicates how important it is to understand the role of {{chem2|K+}} charge carriers to understand the living mechanism of plants.

Researchers demonstrated a potassium-air battery ({{chem2|K\-O2}}) with low overpotential. Its charge/discharge potential gap of about 50 mV is the lowest reported value in metal−air batteries. This provides a round-trip energy efficiency of >95%. In comparison, lithium–air batteries ({{chem2|Li\-O2}}) have a much higher overpotential of 1–1.5 V, which results in 60% round-trip efficiency.{{cite journal|title= A Low-Overpotential Potassium−Oxygen Battery Based on Potassium Superoxide|journal= Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume= 135|issue= 8|pages= 2923–2926|doi= 10.1021/ja312059q|pmid= 23402300|year = 2013|last1 = Ren|first1 = Xiaodi|last2= Wu|first2= Yiying}}

• List of battery types
• Lithium–air battery
• Thin film lithium-ion battery
• Alkali metal-ion battery
• Lithium-ion battery
• Sodium-ion battery
• Potassium-ion battery
• Calcium-ion battery

{{Reflist|30em}}

• [https://spectrum.ieee.org/new-battery-technology-could-provide-largescale-energy-storage-for-the-grid New Battery Technology Could Provide Large-Scale Energy Storage for the Grid]

{{Galvanic cells}}

Category:Metal-ion batteries

Category:Potassium