power posing

The initial research on power posing was published in 2010. Dana Carney, Amy Cuddy, and Andy Yap claimed that high-power poses "produce power". The study included 42 participants, who were coached by researchers to assume a physical position of power. Hormone levels were measured before and after, and the authors stated that they found an increase in testosterone and a decrease in cortisol after posing. The researchers themselves suggested a range of possible real-world applications:

{{quote|These findings suggest that, in some situations requiring power, people have the ability to "fake it 'til they make it." Over time and in aggregate, these minimal postural changes and their outcomes potentially could improve a person's general health and well-being. This potential benefit is particularly important when considering people who are or who feel chronically powerless because of lack of resources, low hierarchical rank in an organization, or membership in a low-power social group."{{cite journal |title=Power Posing: Brief Nonverbal Displays Affect Neuroendocrine Levels and Risk Tolerance |first1=Dana R. |last1=Carney |first2=Amy J.C. |last2=Cuddy |first3=Andy J. |last3=Yap |url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/mygsb/faculty/research/pubfiles/4679/power.poses_.PS_.2010.pdf |journal=Psychological Science |volume=21 |number=10 |pages=1363–1368|doi=10.1177/0956797610383437 |pmid=20855902 |date=January 10, 2010|s2cid=1126623 }}}}

The researchers concluded that power posing induces lasting hormonal changes, which can lead to better outcomes in work-related situations, such as job interviews and wage negotiations.

The earliest criticism of Carney, Cuddy and Yap's work came from Steven Stanton, who noted their lack of attention to gender differences. "Carney et al. used a novel manipulation to ask an important question," he concluded, "but the degree to which their findings can be fully understood and implemented into future research is questionable without more complete analyses."{{cite journal|title=The Essential Implications of Gender in Human Behavioral Endocrinology Studies|first=Steven J.|last=Stanton|year=2011|journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience|volume=5|pages=9|doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00009|pmid = 21441984|pmc=3057631|doi-access=free }}

A 2015 article, published in Psychological Science by Ranehill et al. reported the results of a conceptual replication of the study using a larger sample. The researchers confirmed Carney et al.'s results about felt power but could not detect any physiological or behavioral effects of power posing.{{cite journal |last1=Ranehill |first1=Eva |last2=Dreber |first2=Anna |last3=Johannesson |first3=Magnus |last4=Leiberg |first4=Susanne |last5=Sul |first5=Sunhae |last6=Weber |first6=Roberto A. |date=May 26, 2015 |title=Assessing the Robustness of Power Posing: No Effect on Hormones and Risk Tolerance in a Large Sample of Men and Women |journal=Psychological Science |pmid=25810452 |doi=10.1177/0956797614553946 |volume=26 |number=5 |pages=653–6 |s2cid=28372856 |url=http://datacolada.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/5110-Ranehill-Dreber-Johannesson-Leiberg-Sul-Weber-PS-2015-Assessing-the-robustness-of-power-posing-no-effect-on-hormones-and-risk-rolerance-in-a-large-sample-of-men-and-women.pdf}} The statistical methods that may have led to the original erroneous findings were reviewed by Uri Simonsohn and Joseph Simmons of the Wharton School in a 2016 paper, concluding that the current body of research fails to "suggest the existence of an effect once we account for selective reporting".{{cite journal |title=Power Posing: P-Curving the Evidence |series=Psychological Science (forthcoming) |date=June 10, 2016 |first1=Joseph P. |last1=Simmons |journal=Data Colada |ssrn=2791272 }}{{cite web|last1=Gelman|first1=Andrew|author-link1=Andrew Gelman|title=Another failed replication of power pose|url=http://andrewgelman.com/2016/10/22/30294/|website=Statistical Modeling, Causal Inference, and Social Science|date=22 October 2016|access-date=November 6, 2017}}{{cite web|last1=Gelman|first1=Andrew|author-link1=Andrew Gelman|title= Beyond "power pose": Using replication failures and a better understanding of data collection and analysis to do better science |url=http://andrewgelman.com/2017/10/18/beyond-power-pose-using-replication-failures-better-understanding-data-collection-analysis-better-science/|website=Statistical Modeling, Causal Inference, and Social Science|date=18 October 2017|access-date=November 6, 2017}}

In the years that followed, attempts were made by various research groups to apply power posing manipulation in different contexts. The results did not support the assumptions made by Cuddy et al. In a 2016 study by Garrison et al. the effect of posture manipulation was combined with dominant vs. submissive gaze. However, no effect was found on risk taking and, in contrast to original expectations, adopting an expansive pose reduced feelings of power.{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/1948550616652209|title = Embodying Power| journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science| volume=7| issue=7| pages=623–630|year = 2016|last1 = Garrison|first1 = Katie E.| last2=Tang| first2=David| last3=Schmeichel| first3=Brandon J.|s2cid = 53520700}} Deuter et al. (2016) investigated the effect of cognitive role taking and Cuddy's power posing manipulation in the Trier Social Stress Test; although role taking had an influence on the cortisol and testosterone response after stress, the posture manipulation had no effect on hormonal, behavioral or subjective measures.{{cite journal |last1=Deuter |first1=Christian Eric|last2=Schächinger|first2=Hartmut|last3=Best|first3=Daniel|last4=Neumann|first4=Roland|date=September 2016 |title=Effects of two dominance manipulations on the stress response: Cognitive and embodied influences |journal=Biological Psychology |pmid=27381928|doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.06.004 |volume=119|pages=184–189 |s2cid=25385820}}

In a study conducted by Smith et al. in 2017, participants had to compete in a challenging task while they had to assume high or low power poses. The authors report no main effect of pose type on testosterone, cortisol, risk or feelings of power. However, they found an interaction between pose type and competition outcome on testosterone: while winners assigned to a high-power pose had small increases in testosterone levels, losers had a reduction in testosterone after holding high-power poses.{{cite journal|title=Winners, losers, and posers: The effect of power poses on testosterone and risk-taking following competition|first1=Kristopher|last1=Smith|first2=Coren |last2=Apicella|year=2017|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=92|pages=172–181|pmid=27840104|doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.11.003|s2cid=205807915}}

In 2016, Dana Carney, who had been the lead author on the original 2010 paper and had supported the publication of the 2015 Ranehill et al. replication attempt, published a statement on the University of California, Berkeley website, stating that she no longer believed the effect was valid: "I do not believe that 'power pose effects' are real...the evidence against the existence of power poses is undeniable."{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/magazine/when-the-revolution-came-for-amy-cuddy.html |title=When the Revolution Came for Amy Cuddy |first1=Susan |last1=Dominus |date=October 18, 2017 |work=New York Times Magazine}}{{cite web |url=http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/dana_carney/pdf_my%20position%20on%20power%20poses.pdf |title=My position on "Power Poses" |first=Dana R. |last=Carney |access-date=October 19, 2017 |date=nd}}{{cite web|last1=Singal|first1=Jesse|title='Power Posing' Co-author: 'I Do Not Believe That 'Power Pose' Effects Are Real'|url=http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2016/09/power-poses-co-author-i-dont-think-power-poses-are-real.html|website=New York Magazine|date=26 September 2016 |access-date=October 21, 2017}}{{cite web|last1=Singal|first1=Jesse|last2=Dahl|first2=Melissa|title=Here Is Amy Cuddy's Response to Critiques of Her Power-Posing Research|url=http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2016/09/read-amy-cuddys-response-to-power-posing-critiques.html|website=New York Magazine|date=30 September 2016 |access-date=October 21, 2017}}

Joseph Cesario, an associate professor of psychology at Michigan State University, who co-edits Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, arranged a special issue on power posing that published in June 2017; the issue included eleven new studies, along with a meta-analyses, which found that the effect of power posing on power behaviors was not replicated.{{cite web |url=http://fortune.com/2016/10/02/power-poses-research-false/ |title='Power Poses' Researcher Dana Carney Now Says Effects are "Undeniably" False |work=Fortune |date=October 2, 2016 |first1=David Z. |last1=Morris }}{{cite magazine |title='Power Poses' Don't Actually Work. Try These Confidence-Boosting Strategies Instead |first1=Jeffrey |last1=Kluger |date=September 26, 2017 |access-date=October 19, 2017 |url=https://time.com/4949675/power-poses-confidence/ |magazine=Time}}{{cite web |url=http://datacolada.org/37 |date=September 10, 2017 |access-date=October 19, 2017 |title=Eleven New Studies Suggest 'Power Poses' Don't Work |website=DataColada |first1=Joseph |last1=Cesario |first2=Andy |last2=Henion}}{{cite web |title='Power poses' don't really make you more powerful, nine more studies confirm |first1=Meghan |last1=Bartels |date=September 13, 2017 |url=http://www.newsweek.com/power-poses-dont-make-you-more-powerful-studies-664261 |work=Newsweek |access-date=October 19, 2017}} The published studies were designed to answer whether the power-posing hypothesis was real and included high quality research features like pre-registration of endpoints. Carney co-authored the introduction to the issue, and noted that while the meta-analysis failed to find any effect in power behaviors, it did find a medium-sized effect in a feeling of power; she also wrote that the studies could not resolve whether the effect on a feeling of power was only an experimental artifact.{{cite journal|last1=Cesario|first1=Joseph|last2=Jonas|first2=Kai J.|last3=Carney|first3=Dana R.|title=CRSP special issue on power poses: what was the point and what did we learn?|journal=Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology|date=June 28, 2017|volume=2|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1080/23743603.2017.1309876|doi-access=free}}

In 2017, a meta-study by Cuddy et.al, surveyed 55 studies about power poses, and found "strong evidential value for postural-feedback (i.e., power-posing) effects and particularly robust evidential value for effects on emotional and affective states (e.g., mood and evaluations, attitudes, and feelings about the self)"{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/0956797617746749|title = P-Curving a More Comprehensive Body of Research on Postural Feedback Reveals Clear Evidential Value for Power-Posing Effects: Reply to Simmons and Simonsohn| journal=Psychological Science| year = 2018|last1 = Cuddy|first1 = Amy| last2=Schultz | first2=Jack | last3=Fosse| first3=Nathan |volume=29| issue=4| pages=656–666| pmid=29498906 | s2cid=3675226 }}

A comprehensive meta-analytic review that analyzed 128 studies on the topic of body postures such as power posing, considering both published and unpublished papers, suggests that power posing has a reliable effect on thoughts and feelings (e.g., positive mood, self-esteem, feelings of dominance). However, power posing has no effect on physiological measures (e.g., hormone levels, blood pressure, skin conductance). Although the authors report an effect on behavioral measures, it remains unclear whether this effect actually exists or is due to selective reporting of significant results. In addition, the researchers point to limitations of the power posing literature: Few studies have included a control group (neutral posture), so it remains unclear whether the effect comes from dominant postures (so-called high power poses) or from submissive, slumped postures (so-called low power poses).{{cite journal |last1=Körner |first1=Robert |last2=Röseler |first2=Lukas |last3=Schütz |first3=Astrid |last4=Bushman |first4=Brad J. |title=Dominance and prestige: Meta-analytic review of experimentally induced body position effects on behavioral, self-report, and physiological dependent variables. |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=January 2022 |volume=148 |issue=1–2 |pages=67–85 |doi=10.1037/bul0000356}}

{{Technical|section|date=October 2024}}

Several researchers noted the lack of control groups in many power posing studies. Many studies had only compared power poses to contractive poses like slouching but had failed to include a normal pose as a control group.{{cite journal |last1=Crede |first1=Marcus |title=A Negative Effect of a Contractive Pose is not Evidence for the Positive Effect of an Expansive Pose: Comment on Cuddy, Schultz, and Fosse (2018) |journal=Meta-Psychology |date=2019 |volume=3 |doi=10.15626/MP.2019.1723 |doi-access=free }}

The problem falls under a general problem called the "poison-medicine" problem;{{Cite journal|last1=Lonati|first1=Sirio|last2=Quiroga|first2=Bernardo F.|last3=Zehnder|first3=Christian|last4=Antonakis|first4=John|date=2018|title=On doing relevant and rigorous experiments: Review and recommendations|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1016/j.jom.2018.10.003|journal=Journal of Operations Management|language=en|volume=64|issue=1|pages=19–40|doi=10.1016/j.jom.2018.10.003|s2cid=159436924 |issn=1873-1317}} comparing a medicine (m) to a poison (p) would not establish if the medicine works in promoting longevity (y) if a baseline (neutral, i.e. placebo) condition is not included because if y(m) > y(p) this difference could arise for a multitude of reasons including that (a) m does not work and p reduces y, or (b) m reduced y but p reduces y more. That a difference is observed in y(m) and y(p) does not necessarily mean that it was caused by the expected treatment effect. This issue is often overlooked in testing some psychology theories wherein incorrect comparisons have been made (e.g., in Galinsky-type power priming studies, where a high and low power prime are often compared; when a baseline is included, priming of this sort creates an asymmetric demand effect, which precludes making correct causal inference).{{Cite journal |last1=Khademi |first1=M. |date=2021-02-01 |title=The problem of demand effects in power studies: Moving beyond power priming |journal=The Leadership Quarterly |language=en |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=101496 |doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101496 |issn=1048-9843 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Sturm |first1=Rachel E. |last2=Antonakis |first2=John |date=2015-01-01 |title=Interpersonal Power: A Review, Critique, and Research Agenda |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314555769 |journal=Journal of Management |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=136–163 |doi=10.1177/0149206314555769 |issn=0149-2063 |s2cid=73651701}}

Since its promotion in a 2010 Harvard Business School Working Knowledge post,{{cite web |last1=Hanna |first1=Julia |title=Power Posing: Fake It Until You Make It |url=https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/power-posing-fake-it-until-you-make-it |website=Harvard Business School Working Knowledge|date=20 September 2010 }} Amy Cuddy has been the most visible proponent of power posing in the public sphere. Her interest in "studying how people can become their aspirational selves" stems from her own experience of recovering from head trauma after a car accident. The power posing "hack" gained wide attention after a TED talk she gave in 2012, where she demonstrated the posture and argued for its benefits. The technique was then covered by CNN and Oprah Winfrey; it was the centerpiece of her 2015 book Presence: Bringing your boldest self to your biggest challenges; and by 2017 her TED talk had been viewed by about 47 million viewers, becoming the second most popular.

In 2015, several news outlets in the United Kingdom said that some members of the UK Conservative Party had begun to adopt a "bizarre" wide stance at high-profile political events, which some suggested was based on Cuddy's 'power posing' advice.{{Cite news|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/conservative-weird-legs-apart/|title=A body language expert on why Sajid Javid (and other Conservatives) use the bizarre 'power pose'|date=2018-04-30|work=iNews|access-date=2018-04-30|language=en-GB|first1=Ruchira|last1=Sharma}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/politics/sajid-javid-adopts-awkward-tory-12453896|title=New Home Secretary Sajid Javid adopts awkward Tory 'wide standing' stance|last=Smith|first=Mikey|date=2018-04-30|work=Daily Mirror|access-date=2018-04-30}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.indy100.com/article/tories-keep-doing-that-incredibly-weird-thing-with-their-legs--bk91vaHsXZ|title=Tories keep doing that incredibly weird thing with their legs|date=2016-06-03|work=indy100|access-date=2018-04-30|first1=Evan|last1=Bartlett}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-43960452|title=When is it OK to do a 'power pose'?|last1=Wheeler|first1=Brian|date=2018-05-01|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-05-01}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/apr/30/sajid-javid-tory-power-stance|title=Sajid Javid and the return of the Tory power stance|first1=Martin|last1=Belam|date=2018-04-30|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2019-07-06}}{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/tory-power-stance-ridiculed-by-speaking-coach-as-pose-of-a-right-plonker-sc8098kr5|title=Tory power stance ridiculed by speaking coach as pose of a right plonker|first1=Grant|last1=Tucker|newspaper=The Times|date=2018-05-05|access-date=2019-07-06}} While this was referred to by some as the "Tory power pose",{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-the-papers-43957420|title=Newspaper headlines: Javid's 'fresh start' and UK faces care crisis|date=2018-05-01|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-05-01}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/shortcuts/2015/oct/07/who-told|title=A body language lesson gone wrong: why is George Osborne standing like Beyoncé?|last=Khaleeli|first=Homa|date=2015-10-07|work=The Guardian|access-date=2018-04-30}} it had previously been used by Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair.{{cite web|url=https://i-d.vice.com/en_uk/article/ne9aqq/whats-with-the-weird-power-stance-people-keep-doing|work=i-D|title=what's with the weird power stance people keep doing?|first1=Hanna|last1=Hanra|date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007052226/https://i-d.vice.com/en/article/ne9aqq/whats-with-the-weird-power-stance-people-keep-doing|archive-date=7 October 2022|url-status=dead}}{{Cite news|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/conservative-weird-legs-apart/|title=A body language expert on why Sajid Javid (and other Conservatives) use the bizarre 'power pose'|date=2018-04-30|work=iNews|access-date=2018-04-30|first1=Ruchira|last1=Sharma}} Politicians publicly photographed in this stance include Sajid Javid, George Osborne, David Cameron,{{Cite news|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/david-cameron-caught-awkward-tory-8105678|title=Has David Cameron finally caught the Tory 'wide standing' disease?|last1=Smith|first1=Mikey|date=2016-06-02|work=Daily Mirror|access-date=2018-04-30}} Tony Blair,{{cite news|url=https://metro.co.uk/2018/04/30/tories-keep-standing-like-7510305|work=Metro|title=Why do Tories keep standing like this?|first1=Jen|last1=Mills|date=30 April 2018}} and Theresa May.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/apr/30/sajid-javid-tory-power-stance|title=Sajid Javid and the return of the Tory power stance|last1=Belam|first1=Martin|date=2018-04-30|work=The Guardian|access-date=2018-04-30}}

By 2016, public discussion of power posing had shifted to the difficulty of replicating the effect in subsequent studies. An extensive series of articles on power posing replication was published by New York magazine by Jesse Singal and other contributors in its Science of Us section.{{cite web|last1=Singal|first1=Jesse|title=There's an Interesting House-of-Cards Element to the Fall of Power Poses|url=http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2016/09/the-fall-of-power-poses-has-a-house-of-cards-aspect-to-it.html|website=New York Magazine|date=27 September 2016 |access-date=October 21, 2017}}{{cite web|last1=Romm|first1=Cari|last2=Baer|first2=Drake|last3=Singal|first3=Jesse|last4=Dahl|first4=Melissa|title=Why People Love(d) Power Posing: A Science of Us Conversation|url=http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2016/09/what-to-do-now-if-power-poses-used-to-help-you.html|website=New York Magazine|date=30 September 2016 |access-date=October 21, 2017}} There was intense controversy around these issues and Cuddy reported experiencing harassment, including death threats, after the findings were not replicated.{{cite web|last1=Singal|first1=Jesse|title=How Should We Talk About Amy Cuddy, Death Threats, and the Replication Crisis?|url=http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2017/04/amy-cuddy-death-threats.html|website=New York Magazine|date=25 April 2017 |access-date=October 21, 2017}} In the spring of 2017, Cuddy left Harvard but continues to promote power posing as life-improvement technique.

• Facial feedback hypothesis
• Fake it till you make it
• Pathological science
• P-hacking

{{reflist|30em}}

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Category:Social psychology

Category:Psychology controversies

Category:Gestures

Category:Power (social and political) concepts