primary hyperoxaluria

Primary hyperoxaluria is an autosomal recessive disease, meaning both copies of the gene contain the mutation. Both parents must have one copy of this mutated gene to pass it on to their child, but they do not typically show signs or symptoms of the disease.

A single kidney stone in children or recurrent stones in adults is often the first warning sign of primary hyperoxaluria. Other symptoms range from recurrent urinary tract infections, severe abdominal pain or pain in the side, blood in the urine, to chronic kidney disease and kidney failure.{{cite web |title=LEARN Oxalosis & Hyperoxaluria {{!}} Oxalosis & Hyperoxaluria Foundation |url=https://www.ohf.org/tag/hyperoxaluria |website=www.ohf.org |access-date=2021-05-15 |archive-date=2021-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028154235/https://ohf.org/tag/hyperoxaluria |url-status=dead }} The age of symptom onset, progression and severity can vary greatly from one person to another, even among members of the same family. Some individuals may have mild cases that go undiagnosed well into adulthood; others may develop severe complications during infancy, which may result in early death.{{cite web |title=Primary Hyperoxaluria |url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/primary-hyperoxaluria/ |website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) |access-date=2021-05-15 |archive-date=2021-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227181926/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/primary-hyperoxaluria/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Hopp |first1=Katharina |last2=Cogal |first2=Andrea G. |last3=Bergstralh |first3=Eric J. |last4=Seide |first4=Barbara M. |last5=Olson |first5=Julie B. |last6=Meek |first6=Alicia M. |last7=Lieske |first7=John C. |last8=Milliner |first8=Dawn S. |last9=Harris |first9=Peter C. |title=Phenotype-Genotype Correlations and Estimated Carrier Frequencies of Primary Hyperoxaluria |journal=Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |date=1 October 2015 |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=2559–2570 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2014070698 |pmid=25644115 |pmc=4587693 |language=en |issn=1046-6673|doi-access=free }}

File:Structure of oxalate.svg

The buildup of oxalate in the body causes increased renal excretion of oxalate (hyperoxaluria), which in turn results in kidney and bladder stones. Stones cause urinary obstruction (often with severe and acute pain), secondary infection of urine and eventually kidney damage. Primary hyperoxaluria is caused by genetic defects that result in the overproduction of oxalate. This is different from secondary hyperoxaluria, which is caused by the increase in dietary and intestinal absorption of oxalate or excessive intake of oxalate precursors.{{cite journal |last1=Bhasin |first1=Bhavna |last2=Ürekli |first2=Hatice Melda |last3=Atta |first3=Mohamed G |title=Primary and secondary hyperoxaluria: Understanding the enigma |journal=World Journal of Nephrology |date=6 May 2015 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=235–244 |doi=10.5527/wjn.v4.i2.235 |pmid=25949937 |pmc=4419133 |issn=2220-6124 |doi-access=free }}

Oxalate stones in primary hyperoxaluria tend to be severe, resulting in relatively early kidney damage (in teenage years to early adulthood), which impairs the excretion of oxalate leading to a further acceleration in accumulation of oxalate in the body.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

After the development of kidney failure patients may get deposits of oxalate in the bones, joints and bone marrow. Severe cases may develop haematological problems such as anaemia and thrombocytopaenia. The deposition of oxalate in the body is sometimes called "oxalosis" to be distinguished from "oxaluria" which refers to oxalate in the urine.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

A diagnosis of primary hyperoxaluria is suspected based on presenting patient characteristics such as kidney stones in infants or children, recurrent kidney stones in adults, or family history of hyperoxaluria. In these patients, stone analysis and urine analysis are recommended to rule out secondary causes of hyperoxaluria. A definitive diagnosis of primary hyperoxaluria requires genetic testing. This is performed using a gene panel covering known mutations for all three types of primary hyperoxaluria.{{cite web |title=Test ID: HYOX Hyperoxaluria Panel, Random, Urine |url=https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/it-mmfiles/Hyperoxaluria_Diagnostic_Algorithm.pdf |website=Mayo clinic laboratories |access-date=14 April 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613080806/https://www1.mayocliniclabs.com/it-mmfiles/Hyperoxaluria_Diagnostic_Algorithm.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Edvardsson |first1=Vidar O. |last2=Goldfarb |first2=David S. |last3=Lieske |first3=John C. |last4=Beara-Lasic |first4=Lada |last5=Anglani |first5=Franca |last6=Milliner |first6=Dawn S. |last7=Palsson |first7=Runolfur |title=Hereditary Causes of Kidney Stones and Chronic Kidney Disease |journal=Pediatric Nephrology (Berlin, Germany) |date=October 2013 |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=1923–1942 |doi=10.1007/s00467-012-2329-z |pmid=23334384 |pmc=4138059 |issn=0931-041X}}

The three main types of primary hyperoxaluria (PH1, PH2, and PH3) are each associated with mutations in specific genes involved in the metabolism of glyoxylate, the precursor of oxalate. These mutations result in decreased production or activity of the proteins that are involved in the normal breakdown of glyoxylate, which results in an overproduction of oxalate.{{cite journal |last1=Hulton |first1=SA |title=The primary hyperoxalurias: A practical approach to diagnosis and treatment. |journal=International Journal of Surgery (London, England) |date=December 2016 |volume=36 |issue=Pt D |pages=649–654 |doi=10.1016/j.ijsu.2016.10.039 |pmid=27815184|doi-access=free }} Mutations in the genes AGXT and GRHPR cause PH1 and PH2, respectively, through decreased production or activity of the proteins they make, which stops the normal breakdown of glyoxylate. Similarly, mutations in the gene HOGA1 cause PH3 due to loss-of-function mutations resulting in impaired protein function.{{cite book |last1=Milliner |first1=DS |last2=Harris |first2=PC |last3=Lieske |first3=JC |editor1=Adam MP |editor2=Ardinger HH |editor3=Pagon RA |display-editors=etal |title=GeneReviews |date=September 24, 2015 |publisher=University of Washington, Seattle |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK316514/ |chapter=Primary Hyperoxaluria Type 3 |pmid=26401545 |access-date=November 19, 2021 |archive-date=June 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603041635/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK316514/ |url-status=live }}

PH1 is considered to be the most common and rapidly progressing form, accounting for about 80% of all currently diagnosed cases and PH2 and PH3 accounting for approximately 10% each of the current cases.{{cite journal |last1=Weigert |first1=Alexander |last2=Martin-Higueras |first2=Christina |last3=Hoppe |first3=Bernd |title=Novel therapeutic approaches in primary hyperoxaluria |journal=Expert Opinion on Emerging Drugs |date=2018-10-02 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=349–357 |doi=10.1080/14728214.2018.1552940|pmid=30540923 |s2cid=56149313 }} However, recent evidence has suggested that PH2 and PH3 are not as benign as previously thought, with up to 50% of patients with PH2 developing kidney failure (chronic kidney disease [CKD] stage 5). While current estimates indicate that kidney failure is rarer in patients with PH3 compared to PH1 and PH2, CKD has been reported in patients with PH3. Moreover, the genetic prevalence based on known PH3 variants is much higher than the diagnosed prevalence of the disease, which could mean either incomplete penetrance (i.e. variant present with no clinical symptoms) or underdiagnosis (i.e. variant present with clinical symptoms but not diagnosed).{{cite journal |last1=Forbes |first1=TA |last2=Brown |first2=BD |last3=Lai |first3=C |title=Therapeutic RNA interference: A novel approach to the treatment of primary hyperoxaluria. |journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |date=22 May 2021 |volume=88 |issue=6 |pages=2525–2538 |doi=10.1111/bcp.14925 |pmid=34022071|pmc=9291495 |s2cid=235126922 }}

Increased water intake and alkalinization of urine is advised to prevent oxalate precipitation in urinary tract. In addition, Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is used to treat PH1 because alanine glyoxylate transaminase requires pyridoxine as cofactor. In approximately one third of patients with PH1, pyridoxine treatment decreases oxalate excretion and prevent kidney stone formation. Conversely, a restriction in oxalate intake is of limited use as the main source of oxalate is endogenous in primary hyperoxaluria.{{cite journal | last=Cochat | first=P. | last2=Hulton | first2=S.-A. | last3=Acquaviva | first3=C. | last4=Danpure | first4=C. J. | last5=Daudon | first5=M. | last6=De Marchi | first6=M. | last7=Fargue | first7=S. | last8=Groothoff | first8=J. | last9=Harambat | first9=J. | last10=Hoppe | first10=B. | last11=Jamieson | first11=N. V. | last12=Kemper | first12=M. J. | last13=Mandrile | first13=G. | last14=Marangella | first14=M. | last15=Picca | first15=S. | last16=Rumsby | first16=G. | last17=Salido | first17=E. | last18=Straub | first18=M. | last19=van Woerden | first19=C. S. | title=Primary hyperoxaluria Type 1: indications for screening and guidance for diagnosis and treatment | journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=27 | issue=5 | date=2012-04-30 | issn=0931-0509 | doi=10.1093/ndt/gfs078 | pages=1729–1736| hdl=2318/104759 | hdl-access=free }}

Lumasiran, an RNA interference therapeutic drug,{{cite journal |last1=Forbes |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Brown |first2=Bob D. |last3=Lai |first3=Chengjung |title=Therapeutic RNA interference: A novel approach to the treatment of primary hyperoxaluria |journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |date=2021-06-11 |volume=88 |issue=6 |pages=2525–2538 |doi=10.1111/bcp.14925|pmid=34022071 |pmc=9291495 |s2cid=235126922 }} is indicated for the treatment of primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1) in adults and children of all ages and is available under the UK Early Access to Medicines Scheme (EAMS).{{cite web | url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/899859/Lumasiran_Public_Assessment_Report_PAR.pdf | title=Lumasiran: Public Assessment Report (PAR) | publisher=Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) | access-date=17 October 2020 | archive-date=21 October 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021091545/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/899859/Lumasiran_Public_Assessment_Report_PAR.pdf | url-status=live }} Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0. Lumasiran was approved for medical use in the European Union and in the United States in November 2020.{{cite web | title=Oxlumo EPAR | website=European Medicines Agency (EMA) | date=13 October 2020 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/oxlumo | access-date=26 December 2020 | archive-date=10 January 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110093434/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/oxlumo | url-status=live }}{{cite press release | title=FDA Approves First Drug to Treat Rare Metabolic Disorder | website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) | date=23 November 2020 | url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-drug-treat-rare-metabolic-disorder | access-date=23 November 2020 | archive-date=23 November 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123235925/http://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-drug-treat-rare-metabolic-disorder | url-status=dead }} {{PD-notice}} In addition, there are a few agents under investigation in clinical trials for PH: Nedosiran (RNA interference therapeutic) for PH1, PH2, and PH3; Stiripentol (antiepileptic drug); Oxabact (lyophilized Oxalobacter formigenes; and Reloxaliase (oxalate-digesting enzyme) for PH {{cite book |last1=Shah |first1=Aniruddh |last2=Leslie |first2=Stephen W. |last3=Ramakrishnan |first3=Sharanya |title=StatPearls |date=2022 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558987/ |chapter=Hyperoxaluria |pmid=32644413 |access-date=2022-01-19 |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219015614/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558987/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Shee |first1=K |last2=Stoller |first2=ML |title=Perspectives in primary hyperoxaluria - historical, current and future clinical interventions. |journal=Nature Reviews. Urology |date=8 December 2021 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1038/s41585-021-00543-4 |pmid=34880452|pmc=8652378 }}

Nedosiran (RIVFLOZA) was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2023. RIVFLOZA is an LDHA-directed small interfering RNA indicated to lower urinary oxalate levels in children 9 years of age and older and adults with primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1) and relatively preserved kidney function. Rivfloza concentration is 160 mg/mL, and it is available in single dose prefilled syringes for patients above 50 kg and smaller dose vial for (0.5ml) or those less than 50 kg (pediatrics).The safety and effectiveness of Rivfloza have been established in pediatric patients aged

9 years and older. {{Cite web |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/215842s000lbl.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=1 October 2023 |archive-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001235147/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/215842s000lbl.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite web | title=Rivfloza: FDA-Approved Drugs | website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=215842 | access-date=1 October 2023 | archive-date=2 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002035105/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=215842 | url-status=live }}

Kidney failure is a serious complication requiring treatment in its own right. Dialysis can control kidney failure but tends to be inadequate to dispose of excess oxalate. Renal transplant is more effective and is the primary treatment of severe hyperoxaluria. Ultimately though, liver transplantation (often in addition to renal transplant) is required to correct the underlying metabolic defect.{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=Jennifer E. |last2=Wattenberg |first2=Debra J. |title=Primary Hyperoxaluria: The Patient and Caregiver Perspective |journal=Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |date=12 March 2020 |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=909–911 |doi=10.2215/CJN.13831119 |pmid=32165441 |pmc=7341774 |url=https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/early/2020/03/26/CJN.13831119?versioned=true |language=en |issn=1555-9041 |access-date=19 November 2021 |archive-date=20 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120015543/https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/early/2020/03/26/CJN.13831119?versioned=true |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Milliner |first1=Dawn S. |last2=McGregor |first2=Tracy L. |last3=Thompson |first3=Aliza |last4=Dehmel |first4=Bastian |last5=Knight |first5=John |last6=Rosskamp |first6=Ralf |last7=Blank |first7=Melanie |last8=Yang |first8=Sixun |last9=Fargue |first9=Sonia |last10=Rumsby |first10=Gill |last11=Groothoff |first11=Jaap |last12=Allain |first12=Meaghan |last13=West |first13=Melissa |last14=Hollander |first14=Kim |last15=Lowther |first15=W. Todd |last16=Lieske |first16=John C. |title=End Points for Clinical Trials in Primary Hyperoxaluria |journal=Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |date=1 July 2020 |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=1056–1065 |doi=10.2215/CJN.13821119 |pmid=32165440 |pmc=7341772 |url=https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/15/7/1056.long |language=en |issn=1555-9041 |access-date=19 November 2021 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119050548/https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/15/7/1056.long |url-status=live }}

• Peroxisomal disorder

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• [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=gene&part=ph1 GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Primary Hyperoxaluria Type 1]
• [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=gene&part=ph2 GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Primary Hyperoxaluria Type 2]
• [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition=primaryhyperoxaluria Primary hyperoxaluria (A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine)]

{{Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism}}

Category:Kidney diseases