problematic smartphone use

Problematic smartphone use is psychological or behavioral dependence on cell phones. It is closely related to other forms of digital media overuse such as social media addiction or internet addiction disorder.

Commonly known as "smartphone addiction", the term "problematic smartphone use" was proposed by researchers to describe similar behaviors presenting without evidence of addiction.{{Cite journal |last1=Panova |first1=Tayana |last2=Carbonell |first2=Xavier |date=June 2018 |title=Is smartphone addiction really an addiction? |journal=Journal of Behavioral Addictions |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=252–259 |doi=10.1556/2006.7.2018.49 |issn=2062-5871 |pmc=6174603 |pmid=29895183}}

Problematic use can include preoccupation with mobile communication, excessive money or time spent on mobile phones, and use of mobile phones in socially or physically inappropriate situations, such as driving an automobile. Increased use can also lead to adverse effects on relationships, degraded mental or physical health, and increased anxiety when separated from a mobile phone or sufficient signal. At the same time, smartphones also play a positive role in modern life by enhancing communication, supporting task management, and providing tools such as portable navigation systems.

History and terminology

Forms of technology addiction have been considered as diagnoses since the mid 1990s.{{Cite book|title=Caught in the net : how to recognize the signs of Internet addiction--and a winning strategy for recovery|last=Young|first=Kimberly|isbn=978-0471191599|location=New York, New York|oclc=38130573|date = 1998-02-27}} In current research on the adverse consequences of technology overuse, "mobile phone overuse" has been proposed as a subset of forms of "digital addiction" or "digital dependence", reflecting increasing trends of compulsive behavior among users of technological devices.{{Cite journal|last1=Rubio|first1=Gabriel|last2=Rodríguez de Fonseca|first2=Fernando|last3=De-Sola Gutiérrez|first3=José|date=2016|title=Cell-Phone Addiction: A Review|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=7|pages=175|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00175|pmid=27822187|pmc=5076301|issn=1664-0640|doi-access=free}} Researchers have termed these behaviors "smartphone addiction" and "problematic smartphone use", as well as referring to use of non-smartphone mobile devices (cell phones).{{Cite journal|last1=Elhai|first1=Jon D.|last2=Dvorak|first2=Robert D.|last3=Levine|first3=Jason C.|last4=Hall|first4=Brian J.|date=January 2017|title=Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=207|pages=251–259|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030|pmid=27736736|s2cid=205642153 }}

Excessive use of technological devices may affect developmental, social, mental, and physical well-being and result in symptoms similar to behavioral addictions, but the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders has not formally codified problematic smartphone use as a diagnosis.{{Cite journal |last1=Chamberlain |first1=Samuel R. |last2=Grant |first2=Jon E. |date=August 2016 |title=Expanding the definition of addiction: DSM-5 vs. ICD-11 |journal=CNS Spectrums |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=300–303 |doi=10.1017/S1092852916000183 |issn=2165-6509 |pmc=5328289 |pmid=27151528}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/internet-gaming|title=Internet Gaming|website=www.psychiatry.org|access-date=2019-05-10|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526172908/https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/internet-gaming|url-status=live}} Widely accepted recommendations for the treatment of problematic use behaviors do not yet exist in part due to the lack of well-established evidence or expert consensus, the differing emphasis of the classification manuals, and difficulties using animal models for analysis.{{Cite journal|last1=Grant|first1=Jon E.|last2=Chamberlain|first2=Samuel R.|date=2016-08-01|title=Expanding the definition of addiction: DSM-5 vs. ICD-11|journal=CNS Spectrums|volume=21|issue=4|pages=300–303|doi=10.1017/S1092852916000183|issn=1092-8529|pmc=5328289|pmid=27151528}}

While published studies have shown associations between digital media use and mental health symptoms or diagnoses, causality has not been established, with nuances and caveats of researchers often misunderstood by the general public, or misrepresented by the media.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/Children-digital-technology-wellbeing.pdf|title=How does the time children spend using digital technology impact their mental well-being, social relationships and physical activity? - An evidence-focused literature review|last=Kardefelt-Winther|first=Daniel|date=2017-02-01|publisher=UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti|access-date=2019-05-12|archive-date=5 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705215123/https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/Children-digital-technology-wellbeing.pdf|url-status=live}} A systematic review of reviews published in 2019 concluded that evidence—although of mainly low to moderate quality—showed an association between screen time and poorer psychological health, including symptoms such as inattention, hyperactivity, low self esteem, and behavioral issues in childhood and adolescence.{{Cite journal|last1=Viner|first1=Russell M.|last2=Stiglic|first2=Neza|date=2019-01-01|title=Effects of screentime on the health and well-being of children and adolescents: a systematic review of reviews|journal=BMJ Open|volume=9|issue=1|pages=e023191|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023191|issn=2044-6055|pmid=30606703|pmc=6326346}} Several studies have shown that females are more likely to overuse social media, while males are more likely to overuse video games.{{Cite journal|last1=Hawi|first1=Nazir|last2=Samaha|first2=Maya|date=2019-08-30|title=Identifying commonalities and differences in personality characteristics of Internet and social media addiction profiles: traits, self-esteem, and self-construal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327328659|journal=Behaviour & Information Technology|volume=38|issue=2|pages=110–119|doi=10.1080/0144929X.2018.1515984|s2cid=59523874|issn=0144-929X|access-date=13 May 2019|archive-date=23 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123110742/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327328659|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal|last1=Griffiths|first1=Mark D.|last2=Kuss|first2=Daria J.|date=2017-03-17|title=Social Networking Sites and Addiction: Ten Lessons Learned|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=14|issue=3|pages=311|doi=10.3390/ijerph14030311|pmid=28304359|pmc=5369147|doi-access=free}} This has led experts to suggest that digital media overuse may not be a unified phenomenon, with some calling to delineate proposed disorders based on individual online activity.

Due to the lack of recognition and consensus on the concepts, diagnoses and treatments are difficult to standardize or recommend.{{Cite journal|last1=Ryding|first1=Francesca C.|last2=Kaye|first2=Linda K.|date=2018|title="Internet Addiction": a Conceptual Minefield|journal=International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction|volume=16|issue=1|pages=225–232|doi=10.1007/s11469-017-9811-6|issn=1557-1874|pmc=5814538|pmid=29491771}}

Prevalence

Haider estimates of the prevalence of forms of technology overuse have varied considerably, with marked variations by nation{{Cite journal|last1=De-Sola Gutiérrez|first1=José|last2=Rodríguez de Fonseca|first2=Fernando|last3=Rubio|first3=Gabriel|date=2016-10-24|title=Cell-Phone Addiction: A Review|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|volume=7|pages=175|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00175|pmc=5076301|pmid=27822187|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Cecilia|last2=Li|first2=Angel Yee-lam|date=2014-12-01|title=Internet Addiction Prevalence and Quality of (Real) Life: A Meta-Analysis of 31 Nations Across Seven World Regions|journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking|volume=17|issue=12|pages=755–760|doi=10.1089/cyber.2014.0317|issn=2152-2715|pmc=4267764|pmid=25489876}} and increases over time.{{Cite journal|last1=Olson|first1=Jay A.|last2=Sandra|first2=Dasha A.|last3=Colucci|first3=Élissa S.|last4=Al Bikaii|first4=Alain|last5=Chmoulevitch|first5=Denis|last6=Nahas|first6=Johnny|last7=Raz|first7=Amir|last8=Veissière|first8=Samuel P. L.|date=2022-04-01|title=Smartphone addiction is increasing across the world: A meta-analysis of 24 countries|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563221004611|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|language=en|volume=129|pages=107138|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2021.107138|s2cid=245159672|issn=0747-5632}}

Prevalence of mobile phone overuse depends largely on definitions and the scales used to quantify behaviors. Two main scales are in use, in both adult and adolescent populations: the 20-item self-reported Problematic Use of Mobile Phones (PUMP) scale,{{Cite journal|vauthors=Merlo LJ, Stone AM, Bibbey A |title= Measuring Problematic Mobile Phone Use: Development and Preliminary Psychometric Properties of the PUMP Scale |journal= J Addict |volume= 2013|pages= 1–7|year=2013 |pmid=24826371 |doi=10.1155/2013/912807 |pmc=4008508|doi-access= free }} and the Mobile Phone Problem Use Scale (MPPUS). There are variations in the age, gender, and percentage of the population affected problematically according to the scales and definitions used. The prevalence among British adolescents aged 11–14 was 10%.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lopez-Fernandez O, Honrubia-Serrano L, Freixa-Blanxart M, Gibson W |title=Prevalence of problematic mobile phone use in British adolescents |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=91–98 |year=2014 |pmid=23981147 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2012.0260 |url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/28421/1/5974_Lopez-Fernandez.pdf |hdl=2445/53130 |s2cid=626559 |hdl-access=free |access-date=7 February 2019 |archive-date=5 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105053446/http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/28421/1/5974_Lopez-Fernandez.pdf |url-status=live }} In India, addiction is stated at 39-44% for this age group.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Davey S, Davey A |title= Assessment of Smartphone Addiction in Indian Adolescents: A Mixed Method Study by Systematic-review and Meta-analysis Approach |journal= J Prev Med |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=1500–1511 |year=2014 |pmid=25709785 |pmc=4336980}} Under different diagnostic criteria, the estimated prevalence ranges from 0 to 38%, with self-attribution of mobile phone addiction exceeding the prevalence estimated in the studies themselves.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Pedrero Pérez EJ, Rodríguez Monje MT, Ruiz Sánchez De León JM |title= Mobile phone abuse or addiction. A review of the literature |journal= Adicciones |volume=24 |issue= 2|pages=139–152 |year=2012 |pmid=22648317 }} The prevalence of the related problem of internet addiction was 4.9-10.7% in Korea, and is now regarded as a serious public health issue.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Koo HJ, Kwon JH |title=Risk and protective factors of internet addiction: a meta-analysis of empirical studies in Korea |journal=Yonsei Med J |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=1691–1711 |year=2014 |pmid=25323910 |doi=10.3349/ymj.2014.55.6.1691|pmc=4205713}} A questionnaire survey in Korea also found that these teenagers are twice as likely to admit that they are "mobile phone addicted" as adults. They also believe smartphone communication has become an important part of their lives and an important way to maintain social relationships.{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Dongil |last2=Lee |first2=Yunhee |last3=Lee |first3=Juyoung |last4=Nam |first4=JeeEun Karin |last5=Chung |first5=Yeoju |date=21 May 2014 |title=Development of Korean Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale for Youth |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=e97920 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0097920 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4029762 |pmid=24848006 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...997920K |doi-access=free}} Additional scales used to measure smartphone addictions are the Korean Scale for Internet Addiction for adolescents (K-scale), the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS-SV), and the Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale (SAPS). These implicit tests were validated in a 2018 study as means of measuring smartphone and internet addiction in children and adolescents.{{cite journal |author1-first=Daeyoung |author1-last=Roh |author2-first=Soo-Young |author2-last=Bhang |author3-first=Jung-Seok |author3-last=Choi |author4-first=Yong Sil |author4-last=Kweon |author5-first=Sang-Kyu |author5-last=Lee |author6-first=Marc N. |author6-last=Potenza |author6-link=Marc Potenza |title=The Validation of Implicit Association Test Measures for Smartphone and Internet Addiction in at-Risk Children and Adolescents |journal=Journal of Behavioral Addictions |volume=7 |number=1 |date=2018 |pages=79–87 |doi=10.1556/2006.7.2018.02 |pmid=29383939 |pmc=6035023 }}

Behaviors associated with mobile-phone addiction differ between genders.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Roberts JA, Yaya LH, Manolis C |title= The invisible addiction: cell-phone activities and addiction among male and female college students |journal= Journal of Behavioral Addictions |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=254–265 |year=2014 |pmid=25595966 |doi=10.1556/JBA.3.2014.015|pmc=4291831}}{{Cite journal|last1=Ioannidis|first1=Konstantinos|last2=Treder|first2=Matthias S.|last3=Chamberlain|first3=Samuel R.|last4=Kiraly|first4=Franz|last5=Redden|first5=Sarah A.|last6=Stein|first6=Dan J.|last7=Lochner|first7=Christine|last8=Grant|first8=Jon E.|date=2018-06-01|title=Problematic internet use as an age-related multifaceted problem: Evidence from a two-site survey|url= |journal=Addictive Behaviors|language=en|volume=81|pages=157–166|doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.017|issn=0306-4603|pmc=5849299|pmid=29459201}} Older people are less likely to develop addictive mobile phone behavior because of different social usage, stress, and greater self-regulation.{{Cite journal |author1=van Deursen AJAM |author2=Bolle CL |author3=Hegner SM |author4=Kommers PAM |title=Modeling habitual and addictive smartphone behaviour: The role of smartphone usage types, emotional intelligence, social stress, self-regulation, age, and gender |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=45 |pages=411–420 |year=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.039 |url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/modeling-habitual-and-addictive-smartphone-behavior-the-role-of-smartphone-usage-types-emotional-intelligence-social-stress-selfregulation-age-and-gender(07032bc5-8dcf-4c19-a52e-514348532d6f).html |access-date=28 January 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407113109/https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/modeling-habitual-and-addictive-smartphone-behavior-the-role-of-smartphone-usage-types-emotional-intelligence-social-stress-selfregulation-age-and-gender(07032bc5-8dcf-4c19-a52e-514348532d6f).html |url-status=live }} A 2019 study by British media regulator Ofcom showed that 50% of 10-year-olds in the UK owned a smartphone.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51358192|title=Half of UK 10-year-olds own a smartphone|date=4 February 2020|website=BBC News|access-date=4 February 2020|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204123549/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51358192|url-status=live}}

A study conducted by researchers at the University of Toronto Mississauga surveyed over 50,000 participants across 195 countries to examine global patterns of smartphone usage. The findings indicated consistent trends in problematic smartphone use, particularly among younger women. The study suggests that social and cultural factors, such as the emphasis on social connectivity and the role of smartphones in daily life, contribute to these patterns. Additionally, the research highlights the importance of considering the context of smartphone use when assessing its impact on individuals' well-being. For instance, extensive use for professional purposes may not be problematic, whereas usage that interferes with sleep or daily activities might indicate issues.{{Cite web |date=2023-11-07 |title=Researchers track global smartphone addiction patterns in largest-ever study {{!}} University of Toronto Mississauga |url=https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/main-news/researchers-track-global-smartphone-addiction-patterns-largest-ever-study |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=www.utm.utoronto.ca |language=en}}

Negative effects

File:Mobile phone cage in high school.jpg, a mobile phone cage is used to prevent students from using smartphones in the classroom during lessons.]]

Overuse of mobile phones may be associated with negative outcomes on mental and physical health, in addition to having an impact on how users interact socially.

=Social=

Some people are using online communication to replace face-to-face conversations. Clinical psychologist Lisa Merlo says, "Some patients pretend to talk on the phone or fiddle with apps to avoid eye contact or other interactions at a party."{{Cite news |last=Gibson |first=E. |date=27 July 2011 |title=Smartphone dependency: a growing obsession with gadgets |publisher=USA Today |url= http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/medical/health/medical/mentalhealth/story/2011/07/Smartphone-dependency-a-growing-obsession-to-gadgets/49661286/1 |access-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150329011616/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/medical/health/medical/mentalhealth/story/2011/07/Smartphone-dependency-a-growing-obsession-to-gadgets/49661286/1 |archive-date=29 March 2015 |url-status=dead }} Furthermore, a 2011 study showed

70% check their phones in the morning within an hour of getting up;
56% check their phones before going to bed;
48% check their phones over the weekend;
51% constantly check their phones during vacation; and
44% reported they would feel very anxious and irritable if they did not interact with their phones within a week.{{cite book|last=Perlow|first=Leslie A.|title=Sleeping with your smartphone : how to break the 24/7 habit and change the way you work|date=2012|publisher=Harvard Business Review Press|location=Boston |isbn=9781422144046}}{{page needed|date=March 2019}}

This change in style from face-to-face to text-based conversation has also been observed by American psychologist Sherry Turkle. Her work cites connectivity as an important trigger of social behavior change regarding communication;{{cite book |last=Turkle |first=Sherry |date=2011 |title=Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from each Other |url=https://archive.org/details/alonetogetherwhy0000turk_b1h7 |url-access=limited |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |page=241 |isbn=9780465010219 }} therefore, this adaptation of communicating is not caused only by the phone itself. Turkle also argues that people now find themselves in a state of "continual co-presence" where digital communication allows the occurrence of two or more realities in the same place and time.{{Cite book |title=Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other |url=https://archive.org/details/alonetogetherwhy0000turk_b1h7 |url-access=limited |last=Turkle |first=Sherry |publisher=Basic Books |year=2011 |isbn=9780465010219 |location=New York |pages=161 }} Subsequently, they also live in a "world of continual partial attention," the process of paying simultaneous attention to a number of sources of incoming information, but at a superficial level. Bombarded with an abundance of emails, texts and other messages, people not only find themselves divesting people of their human characteristics or individuality, but also increasingly treating them as digital units. This is often referred to as depersonalization.{{Cite web |url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/depersonalize |title=the definition of depersonalize |website=Dictionary.com |access-date=2017-12-06 |archive-date=6 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206144859/http://www.dictionary.com/browse/depersonalize |url-status=live }}

According to Elliot Berkman, a psychology professor at the University of Oregon, the constant checking of phones is caused by reward learning and the fear of missing out (FOMO). Berkman explains that, "Habits are a product of reinforcement learning, one of our brain's most ancient and reliable systems," and therefore people tend to develop habits of completing behaviors that have rewarded them in the past.{{Cite web|url=https://mic.com/articles/164230/how-to-break-the-habit-of-checking-your-phone-all-the-time#.3hArQiBBa|title=How to Break the Habit of Checking your Phone all the Time|last=Baral|first=Susmita|date=4 January 2017|website=Mic|access-date=30 May 2018|archive-date=13 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513231625/https://mic.com/articles/164230/how-to-break-the-habit-of-checking-your-phone-all-the-time#.3hArQiBBa|url-status=live}} For many, using a mobile phone has been enjoyable in the past, due to the reinforcing positive feelings when receiving and responding to a notification. Berkman also iterates that people often check their smartphones to relieve the social pressure they place upon themselves to never miss out on exciting things. As Berkman says, "Smartphones can be an escape from boredom because they are a window into many worlds other than the one right in front of you, helping us feel included and involved in society." When people do not check their mobile phones, they are unable to satisfy this "check habit" or suppress the fear of missing out, leading to anxiety and irritability.

Other implications of cell phone use in mental health symptoms were observed by Thomée et al. in Sweden. This study found a relationship between report of mental health and perceived stress of participants' accessibility, which is defined as the possibility to be disturbed at any moment of day or night.{{cite journal|last=Thomée|first=Sara|author2=Härenstam, Annika |author3=Hagberg, Mats |title=Mobile phone use and stress, sleep disturbances, and symptoms of depression among young adults - a prospective cohort study|journal=BMC Public Health|date=2011|volume=11|issue=1|pages=66|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-11-66|pmid=21281471|pmc=3042390 |doi-access=free }}

Critics of smartphones have especially raised concerns about effects on youth, in particular isolation, and its effects on social and emotional development.{{Cite book|last1=Gardner|first1=Howard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRr7AAAAQBAJ&q=critics+of+smartphones+youth&pg=PP2|title=The App Generation: How Today's Youth Navigate Identity, Intimacy, and Imagination in a Digital World|last2=Davis|first2=Katie|date=2013-10-22|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19621-4|language=en|access-date=20 November 2020|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407010254/https://books.google.com/books?id=CRr7AAAAQBAJ&q=critics+of+smartphones+youth&pg=PP2|url-status=live}} The presence of smartphones in everyday life may affect social interactions amongst teenagers. Present evidence shows that smartphones are not only decreasing face-to-face social interactions between teenagers, but are also making them less likely to talk to adults.{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Nee Nee |last2=Walker |first2=Caroline |last3=Gleaves |first3=Alan |date=2015-03-01 |title=An exploration of students' lived experiences of using smartphones in diverse learning contexts using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach |journal=Computers & Education |language=en |volume=82 |pages=96–106 |doi=10.1016/j.compedu.2014.11.001 |issn=0360-1315 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/14097/1/14097.pdf |access-date=14 September 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611145000/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/14097/1/14097.pdf |url-status=live }} In a study produced by Doctor Lelia Green at Edith Cowan University, researchers discovered that "the growing use of mobile technologies implies a progressive digital colonization of children's lives, reshaping the interactions of younger adults." Face-to-face interactions have decreased because of the increase in shared interactions via social media, mobile video sharing, and digital instant messaging. Critics believe the primary concern in this shift is that the youth are inhibiting themselves of constructive social interactions and emotional practices.{{Cite news|last=Twenge|first=Story by Jean M.|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/has-the-smartphone-destroyed-a-generation/534198/|title=Have Smartphones Destroyed a Generation?|work=The Atlantic|access-date=2020-03-02|issn=1072-7825|archive-date=28 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928035506/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/has-the-smartphone-destroyed-a-generation/534198/|url-status=live}}

Social media has changed how people communicate with each other. Nowadays, how we interact and process information is completely different. A huge worry that people have is that kids' attention spans are much shorter, and they believe that it’s because of social media. Over 90 percent of teachers have had concerns about students' mental health over the past few years.National Education Association. (2024). Impact of social media and personal devices on mental health. Retrieved from https://www.nea.org/resource-library/impact-social-media-and-personal-devices-mental-health The access to social media and communication on multiple devices has screen time taking over. A survey was conducted by the National Education Association of nearly 3,000 members working in school classrooms from kindergarten through twelfth grade. The survey shows that the top contributing factors to concerns of mental health include personal device use and social media. The survey also highlighted that teachers are increasingly worried about how social media affects students’ ability to focus, communicate, and build interpersonal skills. Many educators feel that excessive screen time and dependency on personal devices are not only contributing to behavioral challenges but also classroom disruptions. They point out that constant online interactions can lead to heightened anxiety and lowered resilience, as students struggle to balance their digital and real-world experiences. Constant use of one's phone has been shown to cause people to even create their own interruptions by constantly checking things like text messages and emails, even to the degree of hearing their phone or feeling it vibrate when there have been no alerts made in reality. By constantly seeing the glamorous lives that people on the internet perpetuate of themselves, more viewers of such media are led to be less happy with their lives, have increased feelings of jealousy, and also have lowered self-esteem. Overall, the pervasive influence of social media and screen time is deeply impacting students' mental health, attention spans, and ability to form meaningful, real-world connections, leaving educators increasingly concerned about the long-term effects on both learning and well-being.National Education Association. (2024). NEA member polling results: Social media, personal devices, and mental health. Retrieved from https://www.nea.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/nea-member-polling-on-social-media-personal-devices-and-mental-health-june-20-2024.pdf

Other studies show a positive social aspect from smartphone use. A study on whether smartphone presence changed responses to social stress involved 148 males and females around the age of 20.{{Cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=John F.|last2=Hooker|first2=Emily D.|last3=Rohleder|first3=Nicolas|last4=Pressman|first4=Sarah D.|date=May 2018|title=The Use of Smartphones as a Digital Security Blanket: The Influence of Phone Use and Availability on Psychological and Physiological Responses to Social Exclusion|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|language=en-US|volume=80|issue=4|pages=345–352|doi=10.1097/PSY.0000000000000568|pmid=29521885|s2cid=3784504|issn=0033-3174|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/822794w1|access-date=14 September 2021|archive-date=7 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207111927/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/822794w1|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Exposed to a social-exclusion stressor and measuring levels of alpha-amylase (sAA) stress hormone, the results showed higher levels of sAA and cortisol in the group without no phone access, suggested that the presence of a smartphone, even if it's not being used, can decrease the negative effects of social exclusion.

= Hygiene =

Research from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine at Queen Mary in 2011 indicated that one in six cell phones is contaminated with fecal matter. Some of the contaminated phones were also harboring pathogenic strains of bacteria such as E. coli which can result in fever, vomiting, and diarrhea.{{cite news|last=Britt|first=Darice|title=Health Risks of Using Mobile Phones|url=http://source.southuniversity.edu/health-risks-of-using-mobile-phones-137310.aspx|access-date=15 April 2014|newspaper=South Carolina University|date=June 2013|archive-date=5 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605162551/http://source.southuniversity.edu/health-risks-of-using-mobile-phones-137310.aspx|url-status=dead}}

Other research has found a high risk of transmitting such bacteria by medical staff who carry their cellphones during their shift, because cellphones act as a reservoir where the bacteria can thrive.{{Cite journal |url = https://www.ijic.info/article/view/9933/7114 |title = Mobile phones and nosocomial infections |date = 26 March 2012 |access-date = 2015-04-21 |journal = International Journal of Infection Control |volume = 8 |issue = 2 |last1 = Badr |first1 = Rawia Ibrahim |last2 = Badr |first2 = Hatem Ibrahim |last3 = Ali |first3 = Nabil Mansour |doi = 10.3396/ijic.v8i2.014.12 |doi-access = free |archive-date = 22 August 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230822172124/https://www.ijic.info/article/view/9933/7114 |url-status = live }}

=Health=

{{See also|Mobile phone radiation and health|Electronic media and sleep}}

The International Agency for Research on Cancer stated in 2011 that radio frequency radiation (RF) is a possible human carcinogen, based on limited evidence of an increased risk of developing glioma tumors.{{Cite journal |author=World Health Organization: International Agency for Research on Cancer |title=IARC Classifies radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans |journal=Press Release No. |volume=208 |year=2011 |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2011/pdfs/pr208_E.pdf |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=1 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110601063650/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2011/pdfs/pr208_E.pdf |url-status=live }}

In 2018 the US National Toxicology Program (NTP) published the [https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/whatwestudy/topics/cellphones results] of its ten-year, $30 million study of the effects of radio frequency radiation on laboratory rodents, which found 'clear evidence' of malignant heart tumors (schwannomas) and 'some evidence' of malignant gliomas and adrenal tumors in male rats.National Toxicology Program, US Dept of Health and Human Services 2018. Cell Phone Radio Frequency Radiation In 2019, the NTP scientists published an article stating that RF scientists found evidence of 'significant' DNA damage in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of male rat brains and the blood cells of female mice.{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/em.22343 | title=Evaluation of the genotoxicity of cell phone radiofrequency radiation in male and female rats and mice following subchronic exposure | date=2020 | last1=Smith-Roe | first1=Stephanie L. | last2=Wyde | first2=Michael E. | last3=Stout | first3=Matthew D. | last4=Winters | first4=John W. | last5=Hobbs | first5=Cheryl A. | last6=Shepard | first6=Kim G. | last7=Green | first7=Amanda S. | last8=Kissling | first8=Grace E. | last9=Shockley | first9=Keith R. | last10=Tice | first10=Raymond R. | last11=Bucher | first11=John R. | last12=Witt | first12=Kristine L. | journal=Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis | volume=61 | issue=2 | pages=276–290 | pmid=31633839 | bibcode=2020EnvMM..61..276S | pmc=7027901 }} In 2018 the Ramazzini Cancer Research Institute study of cell phone radiation and cancer published its [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29530389/ results] and concluded that "The RI findings on far field exposure to RFR are consistent with and reinforce the results of the NTP study on near field exposure, as both reported an increase in the incidence of tumors of the brain and heart in RFR-exposed Sprague-Dawley rats. These tumors are of the same histotype of those observed in some epidemiological studies on cell phone users. These experimental studies provide sufficient evidence to call for the re-evaluation of IARC conclusions regarding the carcinogenic potential of RFR in humans."Belpoggi F et al. 2018. Report of final results regarding brain and heart tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed from prenatal life until natural death to mobile phone radiofrequency field representative of a 1.8 GHz GSM base station environmental emission. Environ Res Aug:165:496-503.

Research has shown that diminished quantity and quality of sleep could also be due to an inhibited secretion of melatonin.{{cite web|last1=Janssen|first1=D.|title=Smartphone-induced sleep deprivation and its implications for public health|url=http://www.europeanpublichealth.com/news-and-opinion/smartphone-induced-sleep-deprivation-and-its-implications-for-public-health/|website=Europeanpublichealth.com|access-date=29 January 2016|date=2016-01-22|archive-date=1 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201163907/http://www.europeanpublichealth.com/news-and-opinion/smartphone-induced-sleep-deprivation-and-its-implications-for-public-health/|url-status=dead}}

In 2014, 58% of World Health Organization countries advised the general population to reduce radio frequency exposure below heating guidelines. The most common advice is to use hands-free kits (69%), to reduce call time (44%), use text messaging (36%), avoid calling with low signals (24%), or use phones with low specific absorption rate (SAR) (22%).{{Cite journal|vauthors=Dhungel A, Zmirou-Navier D, van Deventer E |title=Risk management policies and practices regarding radio frequency electromagnetic fields: results from a WHO survey |journal=Radiat Prot Dosimetry |volume=164 |issue=1–2 |pages=22–27 |year=2015 |pmid=25394650 |doi=10.1093/rpd/ncu324 |pmc=4401037}} In 2015 Taiwan banned toddlers under the age of two from using mobile phones or any similar electronic devices, and France banned Wi-Fi from toddlers' nurseries.{{Cite news |author=Pierre Le Hir |title=Une loi pour encadrer l'exposition aux ondes |journal=Le Monde |issue=29 January 2015 |language=fr |year=2015 |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2015/01/29/une-loi-pour-encadrer-l-exposition-aux-ondes_4565339_3244.html |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430191610/http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2015/01/29/une-loi-pour-encadrer-l-exposition-aux-ondes_4565339_3244.html |url-status=live }}

As adoption increases, accompanying behavioral health issues and problematic usage patterns become more apparent. Mobile phones continue to become more multifunctional and sophisticated, which exacerbates the problem.Leung, L. and Liang, J., 2015. Mobile Phone Addiction. In Encyclopedia of Mobile Phone Behavior (pp. 640-647). IGI Global

In 2014 the BBC reported concerns from opticians regarding blue-violet light emitted by cell phone screens, that it may be potentially hazardous to the eye and long term it may possibly increase the risk of macular degeneration.{{Cite web |title=Smartphone overuse may 'damage' eyes, say opticians |publisher=BBC |date=28 March 2014 |work=BBC Newsbeat |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-26780069 |access-date=11 December 2023 |archive-date=22 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822173809/https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-26780069 |url-status=live }} The position of the American Macular Degeneration Foundation is that the evidence for this risk, considering the relatively low intensity emitted by device screens, is inconclusive at best.{{cite web |title=Ultra-violet and Blue Light Aggravate Macular Degeneration |date=18 May 2016 |publisher=American Macular Degeneration Foundation |url=https://www.macular.org/about-macular-degeneration/risk-factors/ultra-violet-and-blue-light |access-date=11 December 2023 |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211092804/https://www.macular.org/about-macular-degeneration/risk-factors/ultra-violet-and-blue-light |url-status=live }}

=Psychological=

There are concerns that some mobile phone users incur considerable debt, and that mobile phones are being used to violate privacy and harass others.{{cite journal|last1=Bianchi|first1=Adriana|last2=Phillips|first2=James G.|title=Psychological Predictors of Problem Mobile Phone Use|journal=Cyberpsychology & Behavior|year=2005|volume=8|issue=1|doi=10.1089/cpb.2005.8.39|pmid=15738692|pages=39–51|citeseerx=10.1.1.563.385}} In particular, there is increasing evidence that mobile phones are being used as a tool by children to bully other children.{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/cyberbullying-increases-in-line-with-mobile-phone-usage-infographic/|title=Cyberbullying increases in line with mobile phone usage? (infographic)|first=Charlie|last=Osborne|website=ZDNet|access-date=7 February 2019|archive-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314043524/http://www.zdnet.com/article/cyberbullying-increases-in-line-with-mobile-phone-usage-infographic/|url-status=live}}

There is a large amount of research on mobile phone use, and its positive and negative influence on the human's psychological mind, mental health and social communication. Mobile phone users may encounter stress, sleep disturbances and symptoms of depression, especially young adults. Consistent phone use can cause a chain reaction, affecting one aspect of a user's life and expanding to affect other aspects. It often starts with social disorders, which can lead to depression and stress, and ultimately affect lifestyle habits such as sleep and diet.

Research has shown a correlation between mobile phone overuse and depression. In the wake of the emergence of smartphones, American professor of psychology Jean M. Twenge found an increase in depressive symptoms and even suicides among adolescents in 2010.{{Cite journal|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/has-the-smartphone-destroyed-a-generation/534198/|title=Have Smartphones Destroyed a Generation?|last=Twenge|first=Jean|journal=The Atlantic|date=3 August 2017|access-date=5 March 2018|archive-date=28 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928035506/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/has-the-smartphone-destroyed-a-generation/534198/|url-status=live}} Avid adolescent smartphone users are spending so much time on the devices that they forgo face-to-face human interaction, which is seen as essential to mental health: "The more time teens spend looking at screens, the more likely they are to report symptoms of depression."{{cite journal |last1=Twenge |first1=Jean M. |last2=Joiner |first2=Thomas E. |last3=Rogers |first3=Megan L. |last4=Martin |first4=Gabrielle N. |title=Increases in Depressive Symptoms, Suicide-Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New Media Screen Time |journal=Clinical Psychological Science |date=14 November 2017 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |doi=10.1177/2167702617723376 |s2cid=148724233 }} Twenge also notes that three out of four American teens owned an iPhone, and with this rates of teen depression and suicide have skyrocketed since 2011 following the release of the iPhone in 2007 and the iPad in 2010. Compounding this, teens now spend the majority of their leisure time on their phones; eighth-graders who spend 10 or more hours a week on social media are 56% more likely to be unhappy than those who devote less time to social media.

Psychologist Nancy Colier has argued that people have lost sight of what is truly important to them in life, saying that people have become "disconnected from what really matters, from what makes us feel nourished and grounded as human beings."{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/09/well/live/hooked-on-our-smartphones.html |title=Hooked on Our Smartphones |last=Brody |first=Jane E. |date=2017-01-09 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=5 March 2018 |archive-date=6 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306083432/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/09/well/live/hooked-on-our-smartphones.html |url-status=live }} Addiction to technology has deterred neurological and relationship development because mobile technology is being introduced to people at a very young age. Colier states: "Without open spaces and downtime, the nervous system never shuts down—it's in constant fight-or-flight mode. We're wired and tired all the time. Even computers reboot, but we’re not doing it."

The amount of time spent on screens appears to have a correlation with happiness levels. A nationally representative study of American 12th graders funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse titled Monitoring the Future Survey found that "teens who spent more time than average on screen activities are more likely to be unhappy, and those who spend more time than average on non-screen activities are more likely to be happy."

While it is easy to see a correlation between cell phone overuse and these symptoms of depression, anxiety, and isolation, it is much harder to prove causation, i.e. that cell phones themselves cause these issues. There are many other overlapping factors that also increase depression in people. According to psychologist Peter Etchells, although parents and other figures share these concerns, two other possible explanations are that depressed teens may use mobile devices more, or teens could be more open to discussing or admitting to depression than other age groups.{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/apple-investors-iphone-kids-depression-suicide-evidence|title=Apple investors say iPhones cause teen depression. Science doesn't|last=Turk|first=Victoria|date=2018-01-11|magazine=Wired UK|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-date=17 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317071631/http://www.wired.co.uk/article/apple-investors-iphone-kids-depression-suicide-evidence|url-status=live}}

A survey done by a group of independent opticians revealed that 43% of people under the age of 25 experienced anxiety or even irritation when they were not able to access their phone whenever they wanted.

Smartphone dependence is also associated with increased number of phantom phone signals, as in phantom vibration syndrome.{{Cite journal |last1=Aleksandrowicz |first1=Adrianna |last2=Kowalski |first2=Joachim |last3=Gawęda |first3=Łukasz |date=2023-01-01 |title=Phantom phone signals and other hallucinatory-like experiences: Investigation of similarities and differences |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178122005558 |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=319 |pages=114964 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114964 |pmid=36463722 |s2cid=253673092 |issn=0165-1781|url-access=subscription }}

=Neural=

There has been considerable speculation about the impact problematic mobile usage may have on cognitive development and how such habits could be ‘rewiring’ the brains of those highly engaged with their mobiles. Research has shown that the reward areas of the brains of those who use their phones more exhibit different structural connectivity than those who use their phones less.{{Cite journal|last1=Hampton|first1=William|last2=Wilmer|first2=Henry|last3=Olson|first3=Ingrid|date=2019|title=Wired to be connected? Links between mobile technology engagement, intertemporal preference and frontostriatal white matter connectivity|journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=367–379|doi=10.1093/scan/nsz024|pmid=31086992|pmc=6523422}}

= Distracted driving =

File:Nashville driver using cellphone.jpg

US statistics show over 8 people are killed and 1,161 injured daily due to distracted driving.{{Cite news|url=https://www.fcc.gov/consumers/guides/dangers-texting-while-driving|title=The Dangers of Distracted Driving|date=2011-02-14|work=Federal Communications Commission|access-date=2017-12-11|archive-date=8 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208070119/https://www.fcc.gov/consumers/guides/dangers-texting-while-driving|url-status=live}} At any given daylight moment in the US, approximately 660,000 drivers are using cell phones or electronic devices while driving. A significant number of injuries and accidents from distracted driving can be attributed at least partially to use of a mobile phone, and many phone-related crashes are not reported due to drivers' reluctance to admit to phone use while driving.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsc.org/road-safety/safety-topics/distracted-driving/cell-phone-distracted-driving|title=Cell Phone Distracted Driving|website=National Safety Council|access-date=25 September 2019|archive-date=7 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407182949/https://www.nsc.org/road-safety/safety-topics/distracted-driving/cell-phone-distracted-driving|url-status=live}}

According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, drivers between the ages of 16 and 24 were most distracted, with women at greater risk of dying in a crash. About 20,000 of motor vehicle fatalities between 2012 and 2017 were related to distracted driving.{{Cite web |title=Driver Distraction/Electronic Device Use |work=NCSA Publications & Data Requests |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=11 December 2023 |url=https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/#!/PublicationList/41 |archive-date=1 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201131757/https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/#!/PublicationList/41 |url-status=live }}

There is currently no US federal ban on texting while driving, but several states as well as Washington D.C., Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands have passed laws prohibiting the use of hand-held devices while driving. New drivers in 38 states and DC are not permitted to use cell phones behind the wheel.

In the United Kingdom, any phone use while in control of a vehicle (which includes instructing or accompanying a learner driver) without a hands-free system carries a minimum £200 fine and license penalties, including when the vehicle is stationary.{{Cite web |url=https://www.imslaw.co.uk/mobile-phone-laws-in-the-uk-being-safe-on-the-road/ |title=Mobile Phone Laws In The UK - Make Sure You're Up To Date |last=Cultivate |website=IMS Law |language=en-GB |access-date=2020-04-29 |archive-date=25 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925222018/https://www.imslaw.co.uk/mobile-phone-laws-in-the-uk-being-safe-on-the-road/ |url-status=live }}

A text can take one's eyes off the road for an average of five seconds. Although brief, at {{convert|55|mph}} a vehicle travels {{convert|400|ft}} or just over the length of a football field in that time. A 2021 national study conducted by the United States Department of Transportation found that approximately three percent of drivers were talking on the phone when stopped at an intersection, and estimated that at any point in time about five percent of drivers are on the phone. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) also reported that cell phone users tended to brake harder, drive faster, and change lanes more frequently, predisposing them to crashes and near-crashes; they are two to six times more likely to be involved in accidents.{{Cite web |title=Distracted driving |work=Insurance Institute for Highway Safety |date=2021 |access-date=12 December 2023 |url=https://www.iihs.org/topics/distracted-driving |archive-date=9 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209094829/https://www.iihs.org/topics/distracted-driving |url-status=live }}

Research indicates cell phone use adversely affects driver performance, delaying reaction time, increasing lane deviations, and decreasing time spent observing the road. It can also increase "inattention blindness" in which drivers see but do not register what is in front of them.

Teen drivers are especially at risk; distractions such as music, games, GPS, and social media are potentially deadly when combined with inexperience. The dangers of driving and multitasking continue to rise as more technology is integrated into cars. Teens who texted more frequently were less likely to wear a seat belt and more likely to drive intoxicated or ride with a drunk driver. Cell phone use can affecting young drivers' abilities to control vehicles, pay attention to the roadway, and respond promptly to traffic events.

Positive effects

= Communication =

Smartphones have enhanced interpersonal communication by enabling users to maintain constant contact through calls, text messaging, and video chats. Studies show that frequent mobile communication strengthens social bonds, particularly in long-distance relationships, where higher rates of texting and calling are linked to increased relationship satisfaction.{{Cite journal |last1=Holtzman |first1=Susan |last2=Kushlev |first2=Kostadin |last3=Wozny |first3=Alisha |last4=Godard |first4=Rebecca |date=December 2021 |title=Long-distance texting: Text messaging is linked with higher relationship satisfaction in long-distance relationships |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=3543–3565 |doi=10.1177/02654075211043296 |issn=0265-4075 |pmc=8669216 |pmid=34924671}} Video calls are also proven to provide visual cues and a stronger sense of presence, supporting family closeness and emotional well-being across distances.{{Cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Chen |last2=Wang |first2=Man Ping |last3=Chu |first3=Joanna Tw |last4=Wan |first4=Alice |last5=Viswanath |first5=Kasisomayajula |last6=Chan |first6=Sophia Siu Chee |last7=Lam |first7=Tai Hing |date=2017-11-23 |title=Sharing Family Life Information Through Video Calls and Other Information and Communication Technologies and the Association With Family Well-Being: Population-Based Survey |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=e57 |doi=10.2196/mental.8139 |doi-access=free |issn=2368-7959 |pmc=5721212 |pmid=29170145}}

= Productivity =

Smartphones are used to support productivity through built-in tools and third-party apps. These include calendars, reminders, note-taking apps, and collaborative work platforms. Business users report time savings and increased efficiency through mobile task management. One study found that smartphone use led to a 34% increase in productivity among professionals.{{Cite web |last=Turek |first=Melanie |date=2016-08-03 |title=Employees Say Smartphones Boost Productivity |url=https://insights.samsung.com/2016/08/03/employees-say-smartphones-boost-productivity-by-34-percent-frost-sullivan-research/ |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=Samsung Business Insights |language=en-US}}

= Navigation =

Smartphones provide access to real-time navigation using GPS, which improves travel efficiency and route planning. Apps such as Google Maps and Apple Maps are used widely for driving, walking, and public transit directions. As of 2019, two-thirds of U.S. smartphone users reported using a navigation app at least once per month.{{Cite web |title=Maps and Navigation Apps Are Still Essential to Smartphone Experience, and User Penetration Continues to Grow |url=https://www.emarketer.com/content/people-continue-to-rely-on-maps-and-navigational-apps-emarketer-forecasts-show |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=EMARKETER}}

= Services =

Mobile phones allow users to access a wide range of services, including banking, shopping, ridesharing, and food delivery. Mobile banking apps enable bill payment, transfers, and account management without visiting a physical location.{{Cite web |title=Customers want mobile banking apps to go beyond transactions, Chase study finds {{!}} CX Dive |url=https://www.customerexperiencedive.com/news/customers-mobile-banking-apps-convenience-usage-chase-study/708832/#:~:text=,banking%20needs,%20Chase%20Bank%20found |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=www.customerexperiencedive.com |language=en-US}} Digital wallets and QR code systems have also contributed to the rise of cashless transactions.{{Cite web |title=Mobile Phones: A Culture of Convenience |url=https://www.prove.com/blog/a-culture-of-convenience#:~:text=It%20may%20come%20as%20a,online%20with%20their%20mobile%20phones |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=www.prove.com |language=en}}

Tools to prevent or treat mobile phone overuse

The following tools or interventions can be used to prevent or treat mobile phone overuse.

= Contextual factors =

Recent research by Dr. Kostadin Kushlev, a psychology professor at Georgetown University, suggests that the effects of smartphone use on well-being depend largely on the context in which they are used. He introduces a framework with three categories: displacement, interference, and complementarity. Displacement happens when smartphone use replaces more meaningful or productive activities, such as spending time with others or completing tasks. Interference refers to situations where phone use interrupts ongoing activities, like checking notifications during a conversation. Complementarity describes phone use that supports or enhances what someone is already doing, such as using a map app while traveling. According to Kushlev, recognizing these different types of use can help people form healthier habits without ignoring the useful functions smartphones provide.{{Cite web |last=Djajapranata |first=Cliff |date=2025-02-03 |title=Your Phone Addiction Makes You Less Happy. This Might Help. |url=https://www.georgetown.edu/news/ask-a-professor-smartphone-addiction/ |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=Georgetown University |language=en-US}}

= Behavioral =

Many studies have found relationships between psychological or mental health issues and smartphone addiction.{{Cite journal|last1=Samaha|first1=Maya|last2=Hawi|first2=Nazir S.|date=2016|title=Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=57|pages=321–325|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.045 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Bian|first1=Mengwei|last2=Leung|first2=Louis|date=2014-04-08|title=Linking Loneliness, Shyness, Smartphone Addiction Symptoms, and Patterns of Smartphone Use to Social Capital|journal=Social Science Computer Review|volume=33|issue=1|pages=61–79|doi=10.1177/0894439314528779|s2cid=16554067}}{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Yu-Hsuan|last2=Lin|first2=Yu-Cheng|last3=Lee|first3=Yang-Han|last4=Lin|first4=Po-Hsien|last5=Lin|first5=Sheng-Hsuan|last6=Chang|first6=Li-Ren|last7=Tseng|first7=Hsien-Wei|last8=Yen|first8=Liang-Yu|last9=Yang|first9=Cheryl C.H.|date=2015|title=Time distortion associated with smartphone addiction: Identifying smartphone addiction via a mobile application (App)|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|volume=65|pages=139–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.04.003|pmid=25935253 |s2cid=206465084 }}{{Cite journal|last1=Demirci|first1=Kadir|last2=Akgönül|first2=Mehmet|last3=Akpinar|first3=Abdullah|date=2015|title=Relationship of smartphone use severity with sleep quality, depression, and anxiety in university students|journal= Journal of Behavioral Addictions|volume=4|issue=2|pages=85–92|doi=10.1556/2006.4.2015.010|pmid=26132913 |pmc=4500888}} Some studies show support groups and psychotherapeutic approaches such as cognitive behavioral therapy, motivational interviewing, and family therapy are able to successfully treat internet addiction and may be useful for mobile phone overuse.{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Hyunna|date=2013-12-31|title=Exercise rehabilitation for smartphone addiction|journal=Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation|volume=9|issue=6|pages=500–505|doi=10.12965/jer.130080|pmid=24409425 |pmc=3884868}}{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Kimberly S.|date=2007|title=Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Internet Addicts: Treatment Outcomes and Implications|journal=CyberPsychology & Behavior|volume=10|issue=5|pages=671–679|doi=10.1089/cpb.2007.9971|pmid=17927535|s2cid=13951774}}{{Citation|last1=Young|first1=Kimberly S.|title=Prevalence Estimates and Etiologic Models of Internet Addiction|date=2012-10-09|work=Internet Addiction|pages=1–17|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781118013991|last2=Yue|first2=Xiao Dong|last3=Ying|first3=Li|doi=10.1002/9781118013991.ch1}}

Complete abstinence from mobile phone use or abstinence from certain apps can also help treat mobile phone overuse.{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Chun-Hao|last2=Lin|first2=Sheng-Hsuan|last3=Pan|first3=Yuan-Chien|last4=Lin|first4=Yu-Hsuan|date=2016|title=Smartphone gaming and frequent use pattern associated with smartphone addiction|journal=Medicine|volume=95|issue=28|pages=e4068|doi=10.1097/md.0000000000004068|pmid=27428191|pmc=4956785 }} Other behavioral interventions include practicing the opposite (e.g. disrupt the user's normal routine and force them to re-adapt to a new usage pattern), goal-setting, reminder cards, and listing alternative activities (e.g. exercise, music, art, reading).

In 2019 the World Health Organization issued recommendations about active lifestyle, sleep and screen time for children up to five years of age. These recommendations include limiting daily screen time to one hour, and no screen time at all before the age of two years. They also include three hours of physical activity daily from the age of one year, 14–17 hours of sleep for infants, and 10–13 hours sleep for three year-olds and older.{{cite web |title=WHO guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age. |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/311664/9789241550536-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |website=World Health Organization |access-date=15 May 2019 |archive-date=8 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508035538/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/311664/9789241550536-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}

= Phone settings =

Many smartphone addiction activists (such as Tristan Harris) recommend turning one's phone screen to grayscale mode, which helps reduce time spent on mobile phones by making them boring to look at.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/20/turning-smartphone-greyscale-attention-distraction-colour|title=Will turning your phone to greyscale really do wonders for your attention?|last=Hern|first=Alex|date=2017-06-20|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-07-18|archive-date=19 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719194828/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/20/turning-smartphone-greyscale-attention-distraction-colour|url-status=live}} Other phone settings alterations for mobile phone non-use included turning on airplane mode, turning off cellular data and/or Wi-Fi, turning off the phone, removing specific apps, and factory resetting.{{Cite book|last1=Baumer|first1=Eric P.S.|last2=Ames|first2=Morgan G.|last3=Brubaker|first3=Jed R.|last4=Burrell|first4=Jenna|last5=Dourish|first5=Paul|title=CHI '14 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Refusing, limiting, departing |date=2014|pages=65–68|location=New York, New York, USA|publisher=ACM Press|doi=10.1145/2559206.2559224|isbn=9781450324748|s2cid=19808650}}

= Phone apps =

German psychotherapist and online addiction expert Bert te Wildt recommends using apps such as Offtime and Menthal to help prevent mobile phone overuse.{{Cite web |publisher=ZDF |work=Top-Thema |title=Einfach mal abschalten - Suchtfaktor Smartphone |trans-title=Just switch off - addictive smartphones |url=http://www.zdf.de/volle-kanne/das-smartphone-abschalten-40149508.html |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012032907/http://www.zdf.de/volle-kanne/das-smartphone-abschalten-40149508.html |archive-date=12 October 2015 |url-status=dead |access-date=23 May 2016 }} Apple first added a function in iOS 12 called "Screen Time" that allows users to see how much time they have spent on the phone. In Android a similar feature called "Digital Wellbeing" has been implemented to keep track of cell phone usage.{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnet.com/how-to/ios-12-screen-time-and-stronger-parental-controls/ |title=iOS 12: Getting to know Screen Time and stronger parental controls |date=2018-09-17 |work=CNET |access-date=2018-11-15 |archive-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001220511/https://www.cnet.com/how-to/ios-12-screen-time-and-stronger-parental-controls/ |url-status=live }} These work by increasing user awareness with usage summary notifications, or notifying the user when user-defined time limits have been exceeded.

= Research-based =

Studying and developing interventions for temporary mobile phone non-use is a growing area of research, and has guided the design of apps for managing overuse. In a 2016 study, researchers generated 100 different design ideas for mobile phone non-use, each belonging to several categories. Users found interventions based on three of the eight categories to be the most useful: information (agnostically providing information to users about their usage behavior), mindfulness (users are prompted to reflect on their choices before, during, or after making them), and limits (certain behaviors are time or context-bound, or otherwise constrained within defined parameters). The researchers implemented an Android app called "MyTime" that combined these three intervention types, and found that users reduced their time with their problem apps by 21%, while use of apps they felt were a good use of time remained unchanged.{{Cite conference |last1=Hiniker |first1=Alexis |last2=Hong |first2=Sungsoo (Ray) |last3=Kohno |first3=Tadayoshi |last4=Kientz |first4=Julie A. |title=Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=MyTime |date=2016 |pages=4746–4757 |location=New York |publisher=ACM Press |doi=10.1145/2858036.2858403 |isbn=9781450333627 |s2cid=2928701}}

Other apps resulting from these research efforts include AppDetox, which allows users to define rules that limit their usage of specific apps,{{Cite conference |last1=Löchtefeld |first1=Markus |last2=Böhmer |first2=Matthias |last3=Ganev |first3=Lyubomir |title=Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia |chapter=AppDetox |date=2013 |pages=1–2 |location=New York |publisher=ACM Press |doi=10.1145/2541831.2541870 |isbn=9781450326483 |s2cid=3338918}} and PreventDark which detects and prevents problematic overuse in the dark.{{Cite conference |last1=Ruan |first1=Wenjie |last2=Sheng |first2=Quan Z. |last3=Yao |first3=Lina |last4=Tran |first4=Nguyen Khoi |last5=Yang |first5=Yu Chieh |title=2016 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communication Workshops (PerCom Workshops) |chapter=PreventDark: Automatically detecting and preventing problematic use of smartphones in darkness |date=2016 |publisher=IEEE |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1109/percomw.2016.7457071 |isbn=9781509019410 |s2cid=18999633}} Using vibrations instead of notifications to limit app usage has also been found to be effective.{{Cite conference |last1=Okeke |first1=Fabian |last2=Sobolev |first2=Michael |last3=Dell |first3=Nicola |last4=Estrin |first4=Deborah |title=Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services |chapter=Good vibrations |date=2018 |pages=1–12 |location=New York |publisher=ACM Press |doi=10.1145/3229434.3229463 |isbn=9781450358989 |s2cid=52098664 |doi-access=free}} Other researchers have found group-based interventions that rely on users sharing their limiting behaviors with others to be effective.{{Cite conference |last1=Ko |first1=Minsam |last2=Chung |first2=Kyong-Mee |last3=Yang |first3=Subin |last4=Lee |first4=Joonwon |last5=Heizmann |first5=Christian |last6=Jeong |first6=Jinyoung |last7=Lee |first7=Uichin |last8=Shin |first8=Daehee |last9=Yatani |first9=Koji |title=Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing |chapter=NUGU |date=2015 |pages=1235–1245 |location=New York |publisher=ACM Press |doi=10.1145/2675133.2675244 |isbn=9781450329224 |s2cid=15281296}}

Mobile media education (in particular, teaching of time and attention management skills) can also reduce problematic smartphone use and increase wellbeing among high school students.{{cite journal |last1=Gui |first1=Marco |last2=Gerosa |first2=Tiziano |last3=Argentin |first3=Gianluca |last4=Losi |first4=Lucilla |title=Mobile media education as a tool to reduce problematic smartphone use: Results of a randomised impact evaluation |journal=Computers & Education |date=2023 |volume=194 |page=104705 |doi=10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104705 |s2cid=254529308 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131522002767 |hdl=10281/400255 |hdl-access=free |access-date=28 January 2023 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321225456/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131522002767 |url-status=live }}

= Bans on mobile phone use =

In parts of the world, mobile phones are banned in school settings. In France and Ontario, Canada, the use of mobile phones is banned during instructional time in an effort to improve the performance of students.{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Allison |title=Ontario to ban cellphones in classrooms next school year |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-school-classroom-cellphone-ban-1.5052564 |access-date=5 May 2019 |agency=The Canadian Press |date=12 March 2019 |archive-date=7 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507064938/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-school-classroom-cellphone-ban-1.5052564 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Rory |title=France bans smartphones from schools |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/07/31/europe/france-smartphones-school-ban-intl/index.html |access-date=5 May 2019 |agency=CNN |date=31 July 2018 |archive-date=1 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601170253/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/07/31/europe/france-smartphones-school-ban-intl/index.html |url-status=live }} In 2021, China banned mobile phones in schools unless students have written parental consent.{{Cite news |date=2021-02-02 |title=China bans children from using mobile phones at school |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55902778 |access-date=2023-04-25 |archive-date=2 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102171343/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55902778 |url-status=live }}

Psychological symptoms of phone usage

Persistent smartphone overuse can result in symptoms that can be grouped into three broad categories: depression, social isolation, and low self-esteem or anxiety.{{Cite web|last1=Melinda|first1=Smith|last2=Robinson|first2=Lawrence|last3=Segal|first3=Jeanne|date=October 2019|title=Smartphone Addiction|url=https://www.helpguide.org/articles/addictions/smartphone-addiction.htm|access-date=2019-10-24|website=HelpGuide|archive-date=20 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920070438/https://www.helpguide.org/articles/addictions/smartphone-addiction.htm|url-status=live}}

= Depression =

Depression is a mental illness that adversely influences emotion, imagination, and self-regulation. Depressive symptoms can be serious psychological problems in adolescents; the relationship between depressive symptoms and mobile phone addiction is of critical importance because they can sometimes lead to substance abuse, school failure and even suicide.{{Cite journal|last1=Hong|first1=Fu-Yuan|last2=Chiu|first2=Shao-I.|last3=Huang|first3=Der-Hsiang|date=November 2012|title=A model of the relationship between psychological characteristics, mobile phone addiction and use of mobile phones by Taiwanese university female students|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=28|issue=6|pages=2152–2159|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.020|issn=0747-5632}}{{Cite journal|last1=VanTeijlingen|first1=Edwin R|last2=Sathian|first2=Brijesh|date=2018-04-23|title=Addiction of smart phone and its health implications|journal= Journal of Biomedical Sciences|volume=3|issue=3|pages=31–32|doi=10.3126/jbs.v3i3.19671|issn=2382-5545|doi-access=free}}

= Isolation =

Social isolation is the lack of interaction between individuals and society. Communication conducted largely or exclusively online reduces face-to-face interactions with other people and can adversely affect normal social development and interpersonal relationships. This can in turn affect social support, increase other compulsive behaviors, and further undermine psychological health.{{Cite journal|last1=Herrero|first1=Juan|last2=Urueña|first2=Alberto|last3=Torres|first3=Andrea|last4=Hidalgo|first4=Antonio|date=2019-02-01|title=Socially Connected but Still Isolated: Smartphone Addiction Decreases Social Support Over Time|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439317742611|journal=Social Science Computer Review|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=73–88|doi=10.1177/0894439317742611|hdl=10651/46706 |s2cid=64619582|issn=0894-4393|access-date=27 November 2021|archive-date=12 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212204350/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0894439317742611|url-status=live}}

= Low self-esteem and anxiety =

Low self-esteem, a lack of self-confidence and negative self-image, can result from smartphone overuse, and is related to anxiety caused by the fear of missing out.{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychguides.com/behavioral-disorders/cell-phone-addiction/signs-and-symptoms/|title=Signs and Symptoms of Cell Phone Addiction|website=PsychGuides.com|access-date=2019-10-24|archive-date=10 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110004626/https://www.psychguides.com/behavioral-disorders/cell-phone-addiction/signs-and-symptoms/|url-status=live}}

Problematic smartphone use can also affect competence and positivity quality of life latent factors, particularly the "unaware use" mode of using smartphones, namely "its use in conjunction with other activities or late at night".{{cite journal |last1=Sela |first1=A. |last2=Rozenboim |first2=N. |last3=Chalutz Ben-Gal |first3=Hila |year=2022 |title=Smartphone use behavior and quality of life: What is the role of awareness? |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=17 |number=3 |pages=e0260637 |pmid=35275929 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0260637 |pmc=8916658 |bibcode=2022PLoSO..1760637S |doi-access=free }}

Studies with teens have consistently shown that there are significant relationships between high extroversion, high anxiety, low self-esteem, and mobile phone usage. The stronger the young person's mobile phone addiction, the more likely that individual is to have high mobile phone call time, receive excessive calls, and receive excessive text messages.

People suffering from anxiety are more likely to perceive normal life events as pressure, and attempts to reduce this stress can result in more addictive behaviors. Females are more likely to rely on mobile phones to maintain their social relations.

= Narcissism =

Another symptom of cell phone addiction is accumulating narcissistic character traits. Research has shown that personality plays a role in addictive cell phone use. Narcissistic personality disease is commonly developed through the overuse of social media and people will portray character traits of high levels of self-importance, fantasies of unlimited success, feeling special and unique, lack of empathy, envy, and arrogance. However, studies have shown that some of these traits have been viewed as healthy because they provide an outlet for self-esteem and self-confidence.{{Cite journal |last1=Andreassen |first1=Cecilie Schou |last2=Pallesen |first2=Ståle |last3=Griffiths |first3=Mark D. |date=2017-01-01 |title=The relationship between addictive use of social media, narcissism, and self-esteem: Findings from a large national survey |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306460316301095 |journal=Addictive Behaviors |volume=64 |pages=287–293 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.03.006 |pmid=27072491 |issn=0306-4603 |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119172234/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306460316301095 |url-status=live }}

References

External links

{{Commons category-inline|People with mobile telephones}}

Category:Digital media use and mental health

Category:Addiction

Overuse

Category:Substance dependence

Category:Mobile phone culture