process theory
{{for|process theory in writing|Process theory of composition}}
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A process theory is a system of ideas which explains how an entity changes and develops.{{cite book|last1=Van de Ven|first1=Andrew|title=Engaged scholarship: a guide for organizational and social research|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press}} Process theories are often contrasted with variance theories, that is, systems of ideas that explain the variance in a dependent variable based on one or more independent variables. While process theories focus on how something happens, variance theories focus on why something happens. Examples of process theories include evolution by natural selection, continental drift and the nitrogen cycle.
Process theory archetypes
Process theories come in four common archetypes.{{cite journal|last1=Van De|first1=A. H.|last2=Poole|first2=M. S.|title=Explaining development and change in organizations|journal=Academy of Management Review|date=1995|volume=20|issue=3|pages=510–540|doi=10.5465/AMR.1995.9508080329|s2cid=14720122 }} Evolutionary process theories explain change in a population through variation, selection and retention—much like biological evolution. In a dialectic process theory, "stability and change are explained by reference to the balance of power between opposing entities" (p. 517). In a teleological process theory, an agent "constructs an envisioned end state, takes action to reach it and monitors the progress" (p. 518). In a lifecycle process theory, "the trajectory to the final end state is prefigured and requires a particular historical sequence of events" (p. 515); that is, change always conforms to the same series of activities, stages, phases, like a caterpillar transforming into a butterfly.
Applications and examples
Process theories are important in management and software engineering.{{cite book|last1=Ralph|first1=Paul|title=Developing and Evaluating Software Engineering Process Theories|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2818754.2818760|website=Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Software Engineering - Volume 1|publisher=IEEE Press|pages=20–31|date=1 January 2015|isbn=9781479919345|series=Icse '15}} Process theories are used to explain how people are motivated and how decisions are made,{{cite journal|last1=Poole|first1=Marshall Scott|last2=Roth|first2=Jonelle|title=Decision Development in Small Groups IV A Typology of Group Decision Paths|journal=Human Communication Research|volume=15|issue=3|pages=323–356|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2958.1989.tb00188.x|date=March 1989}} how software is designed{{cite journal|last1=Ralph|first1=Paul|title=The Sensemaking-Coevolution-Implementation Theory of software design|journal=Science of Computer Programming|date=April 2015|volume=101|pages=21–41|doi=10.1016/j.scico.2014.11.007|arxiv=1302.4061|s2cid=6154223 }}{{cite journal|last1=Ralph|first1=Paul|title=Software engineering process theory: A multi-method comparison of Sensemaking–Coevolution–Implementation Theory and Function–Behavior–Structure Theory|journal=Information and Software Technology|date=February 2016|volume=70|pages=232–250|doi=10.1016/j.infsof.2015.06.010|arxiv=1307.1019|s2cid=12104046 }} and how software processes are improved.{{cite journal|last1=Allison|first1=I.|last2=Merali|first2=Y.|title=Software process improvement as emergent change: A structurational analysis|journal=Information and Software Technology|date=1 June 2007|volume=49|issue=6|pages=668–681|doi=10.1016/j.infsof.2007.02.003|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/2638/1/WRAP_THESIS_Allison_2004.pdf|hdl=10059/220|hdl-access=free}}
Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives: content and process theories.
- Content theories deal with “what” motivates people and it is concerned with individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McClelland studied motivation from a “content” perspective.
- Process theories deal with the "process" of motivation and are concerned with "how" motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter and Lawler (see: Victor Vroom#Theory of Expectancy), John Stacey Adams and Edwin Locke studied motivation from a "process" perspective.{{Cite web | url=http://ozgurzan.com/management/management-theories/theories-about-motivation/ |last=Zan|first=Özgür|title=A Brief Introduction to Motivation Theory| date=2011-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226112106/https://ozgurzan.com/management/management-theories/theories-about-motivation/|archive-date=26 February 2014}}
Process theories are also used in education, psychology, geology and many other fields; however, they are not always called "process theories".