psychological resilience

A resilient person uses "mental processes and behaviors in promoting personal assets and protecting self from the potential negative effects of stressors".{{Cite journal |vauthors=Robertson IT, Cooper CL, Sarkar M, Curran T |date=2015-04-25 |title=Resilience training in the workplace from 2003 to 2014: A systematic review |url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/5063/1/221261_PubSub2848_Sarkar.pdf |journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=533–562 |doi=10.1111/joop.12120 |issn=0963-1798}} Psychological resilience is an adaptation in a person's psychological traits and experiences that allows them to regain or remain in a healthy mental state during crises/chaos without long-term negative consequences.{{Cite journal |last1=Herrman |first1=Helen |last2=Stewart |first2=Donna E |last3=Diaz-Granados |first3=Natalia |last4=Berger |first4=Elena L |last5=Jackson |first5=Beth |last6=Yuen |first6=Tracy|name-list-style=vanc |date=May 2011 |title=What is Resilience? |journal=The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=258–265 |doi=10.1177/070674371105600504 |issn=0706-7437 |pmid=21586191 |s2cid=62773368|doi-access=free }}

It is difficult to measure and test this psychological construct because resilience can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Most psychological paradigms (biomedical, cognitive-behavioral, sociocultural, etc.) have their own perspective of what resilience looks like, where it comes from, and how it can be developed. There are numerous definitions of psychological resilience, most of which center around two concepts: adversity and positive adaptation.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Fletcher D, Sarkar M |date=2013-01-01 |title=Psychological Resilience |url=https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1016-9040/a000124 |journal=European Psychologist |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=12–23 |doi=10.1027/1016-9040/a000124 |issn=1016-9040}} Positive emotions, social support, and hardiness can influence a person to become more resilient.{{cite journal |last1=Tugade |first1=Michele M. |last2=Fredrickson |first2=Barbara L. |title=Resilient Individuals Use Positive Emotions to Bounce Back From Negative Emotional Experiences. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=February 2004 |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=320–333 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320 |pmid=14769087 |pmc=3132556 }}{{cite journal |last1=Pahwa |first1=Sumit |last2=Khan |first2=Nusrat |title=Factors Affecting Emotional Resilience in Adults |journal=Management and Labour Studies |date=May 2022 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=216–232 |doi=10.1177/0258042X211072935 }}

A psychologically resilient person can resist adverse mental conditions that are often associated with unfavorable life circumstances. This differs from psychological recovery which is associated with returning to those mental conditions that preceded a traumatic experience or personal loss.{{Cite journal |last=Bonanno |first=George A.|name-list-style=vanc |date=2004 |title=Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive After Extremely Aversive Events? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.20|url-access=subscription |journal=American Psychologist |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=20–28 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.20 |pmid=14736317 |s2cid=6296189 |issn=1935-990X}}

Research on psychological resilience has shown that it plays a crucial role in promoting mental health and well-being. Resilient people are better equipped to navigate life's challenges, maintain positive emotions, and recover from setbacks. They demonstrate higher levels of self-efficacy, optimism, and problem-solving skills, which contribute to their ability to adapt and thrive in adverse situations.

Resilience is a "positive adaptation" after a stressful or adverse situation.{{cite journal| vauthors = Hopf SM |title= Risk and Resilience in Children Coping with Parental Divorce|journal= Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science |year=2010|url=http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/spring-2010/risk-and-resilience-in-children-coping-with-parental-divorce|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714025043/http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/spring-2010/risk-and-resilience-in-children-coping-with-parental-divorce|archive-date=2010-07-14}} When a person is "bombarded by daily stress, it disrupts their internal and external sense of balance, presenting challenges as well as opportunities." The routine stressors of daily life can have positive impacts which promote resilience. Some psychologists believe that it is not stress itself that promotes resilience but rather the person's perception of their stress and of their level of control.{{Cite book | vauthors = McGonigal K |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T2oBDAAAQBAJ |title=The Upside of Stress: Why Stress Is Good for You, and How to Get Good at It|url-access=limited |date=2016-05-10 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-98293-8 |language=en}}{{page needed|date=September 2023}} Stress allows people to practice resilience over time, different levels of stress vary among different individuals and the reason for that being is unknown. However, it is known that some people can handle stress better than others.

Stress can be experienced in a person's life course at times of difficult life transitions, involving developmental and social change; traumatic life events, including grief and loss; and environmental pressures, encompassing poverty and community violence.{{multiref2

|1={{cite book|vauthors=Germain CB, Glitterman A|title=The Life Model of Social Work Practice|edition=2nd|year=1996|url=https://archive.org/details/lifemodelofsocia02edgerm|url-access=registration|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780231064163 }}

|2={{cite book| vauthors = Kemp SP, Whittaker JK, Tracy EM |title=Person-Environment Practice: The Social Ecology of Interpersonal Helping|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_C5wcQM-mnAC|url-access=limited|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-202-36784-2|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_C5wcQM-mnAC&pg=PA42 42]+}}

}}

Resilience is the integrated adaptation of physical, mental, and spiritual aspects to circumstances, and a coherent sense of self that is able to maintain normative developmental tasks that occur at various stages of life.{{cite journal | vauthors = Richardson GE | title = The metatheory of resilience and resiliency | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 307–321 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11836712 | doi = 10.1002/jclp.10020 | doi-access = free }} The Children's Institute of the University of Rochester explains that "resilience research is focused on studying those who engage in life with hope and humor despite devastating losses".{{cite journal |url= https://www.childrensinstitute.net/sites/default/files/documents/children-resilience-family-court-review.pdf |title=Fostering children's resilience in the aftermath of divorce: The role of evidence-based programs for children |journal=Family Court Review |year=2005|volume=43|access-date=30 March 2016 | vauthors = Pedro-Carroll JA |pages=52–64|doi=10.1111/j.1744-1617.2005.00007.x }}

Resilience is not only about overcoming a deeply stressful situation, but also coming out of such a situation with "competent functioning". Resiliency allows a person to rebound from adversity as a strengthened and more resourceful person.

Some characteristics associated with psychological resilience include: an easy temperament, good self-esteem, planning skills, and a supportive environment inside and outside of the family.

When an event is appraised as comprehensible (predictable), manageable (controllable), and somehow meaningful (explainable) a resilient response is more likely.{{multiref2

|1={{cite book| vauthors = Antonovsky A |title=Health, Stress, and Coping|url=https://archive.org/details/healthstresscopi00antorich|url-access=registration|year=1979|publisher=Jossey-Bass Publishers|isbn=978-0-87589-412-6}}{{page needed|date=September 2023}}

|2={{cite book| vauthors = Carr A |title=Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness and Human Strengths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gu3V9Kys_QEC|url-access=limited|year=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-58391-991-0|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gu3V9Kys_QEC&pg=PA213 213]+}}

}}

Psychological resilience is commonly understood as a process. It can also be characterized as a tool a person develops over time, or as a personal trait of the person ("resiliency").{{cite book | vauthors = Masten AS | date = 1994 | chapter = Resilience in individual development: Successful adaptation despite risk and adversity. | pages = 3–25 | veditors = Wang M, Gordon E | title = Risk and resilience in inner city America: challenges and prospects. | location = Hillsdale, N.J. | publisher = Erlbaum | isbn = 978-0-8058-1325-8 }} Most research shows resilience as the result of people being able to interact with their environments and participate in processes that either promote well-being or protect them against the overwhelming influence of relative risk.{{cite book | vauthors = Zautra AJ, Hall JS, Murray KE | date = 2010 | chapter = Resilience: A new definition of health for people and communities. | pages = 3–34 | veditors = Reich JW, Zautra AP, Hall JS | title = Handbook of adult resilience | location = New York | publisher = Guilford | isbn = 978-1-4625-0647-7 }} This research supports the model in which psychological resilience is seen as a process rather than a trait—something to develop or pursue, rather than a static endowment or endpoint.{{Cite web |vauthors=Brooks R, Goldstein S|title=Resilience: A Process and a Mindset–ADD Resource Center |date=13 January 2022 |url=https://www.addrc.org/resilience-a-process-and-a-mindset/ |access-date=2022-07-05 |language=en-US}}

When people are faced with an adverse condition, there are three ways in which they may approach the situation.{{Cite journal |last1=Aldao |first1=Amelia |last2=Nolen-Hoeksema |first2=Susan |last3=Schweizer |first3=Susanne |date=March 2010 |title=Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272735809001597 |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=217–237 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004|pmid=20015584 }}

1. respond with anger or aggression
2. become overwhelmed and shut down
3. feel the emotion about the situation and appropriately handle the emotion

Resilience is promoted through the third approach, which is employed by individuals who adapt and change their current patterns to cope with disruptive states, thereby enhancing their well-being.In contrast, the first and second approaches lead individuals to adopt a victim mentality, blaming others and rejecting coping methods even after a crisis has passed. These individuals tend to react instinctively rather than respond thoughtfully, clinging to negative emotions such as fear, anger, anxiety, distress, helplessness, and hopelessness. Such emotions decrease problem-solving abilities and weaken resilience, making it harder to recover.Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: implications for interventions and social policies. Development and psychopathology, 12(4), 857–885. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579400004156 Resilient people, on the other hand, actively cope, bounce back, and find solutions. Their resilience is further supported by protective environments, including good families, schools, communities, and social policies, which provide cumulative protective factors that bolster their ability to withstand and recover from exposure to risk factors.{{Cite journal |last=Morrow |first=Betty Hearn |date=2008 |title=Community resilience: A social justice perspective |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.1.1278.9604 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.1278.9604}}

Resilience can be viewed as a developmental process (the process of developing resilience), or as indicated by a response process.{{cite journal | vauthors = Britt TW, Shen W, Sinclair RR, Grossman MR, Klieger DM | title = How much do we really know about employee resilience? | journal = Industrial and Organizational Psychology | date = June 2016 | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 378–404 | doi = 10.1017/iop.2015.107 | s2cid = 49211847 | doi-access = free }} In the latter approach, the effects of an event or stressor on a situationally relevant indicator variable are studied, distinguishing immediate responses, dynamic responses, and recovery patterns.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fleuren BP, Nübold A, Uitdewilligen S, Verduyn P, Hülsheger UR | title = Troubles on troubled minds: an intensive longitudinal diary study on the role of burnout in the resilience process following acute stressor exposure. | journal = European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology | date = January 2023 | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 373–388 | doi = 10.1080/1359432x.2022.2161369 | s2cid = 255631902 | doi-access = free }} In response to a stressor, more-resilient people show some (but less than less-resilient people) increase in stress. The speed with which this stress response returns to pre-stressor levels is also indicative of a person's resilience.

From a scientific standpoint, resilience’s contested definition is multifaceted in relation to genetics, revealing a complex link between biological mechanisms and resilience:

"Resilience, conceptualized as a positive bio-psychological adaptation, has proven to be a useful theoretical context for understanding variables for predicting long-term health and well-being".{{Cite journal |vauthors=Gavidia-Payne S, Denny B, Davis K, Francis A, Jackson M |year=2015 |title=Parental resilience: A neglected construct in resilience research |journal=Clinical Psychologist |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=111–121 |doi=10.1111/cp.12053}}

Three notable bases for resilience—self-confidence, self-esteem and self-concept—each have roots in a different nervous system—respectively, the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the central nervous system.{{cite book |title=The Resiliency Advantage |vauthors=Siebert A |date=2005 |publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers |isbn=978-1-57675-329-3 |pages=74–78}}

Research indicates that, like trauma, resilience is influenced by epigenetic modifications. Increased DNA methylation of the growth factor GDNF in certain brain regions promotes stress resilience, as do molecular adaptations of the blood–brain barrier.{{cite journal |vauthors=Dudek KA, Kaufmann FN, Lavoie O, Menard C |date=January 2021 |title=Central and peripheral stress-induced epigenetic mechanisms of resilience |journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1097/YCO.0000000000000664 |pmid=33141775 |s2cid=226249341}}

The two neurotransmitters primarily responsible for stress buffering within the brain are dopamine and endogenous opioids, as evidenced by research showing that dopamine and opioid antagonists increased stress response in both humans and animals.{{cite journal |vauthors=Cabib S, Puglisi-Allegra S |date=January 2012 |title=The mesoaccumbens dopamine in coping with stress |journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=79–89 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.04.012 |pmid=21565217 |s2cid=1614115}} Primary and secondary rewards reduce negative reactivity. Primary rewards are stimuli that are attributed to basic needs, such as water, food, and physical well-being. On the other hand, secondary rewards are accomplished by experiences or social interactions Dutcher J. M. (2023). Brain Reward Circuits Promote Stress Resilience and Health: Implications for Reward-Based Interventions. Current directions in psychological science, 32(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121770 {{Definition needed|date=September 2023}} of stress in the brain in both humans and animals.{{cite journal |vauthors=Dutcher JM, Creswell JD |date=December 2018 |title=The role of brain reward pathways in stress resilience and health |journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=95 |pages=559–567 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.014 |pmid=30477985 |s2cid=53719739}} The relationship between social support and stress resilience is thought to be mediated by the oxytocin system's impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ozbay F, Fitterling H, Charney D, Southwick S |date=August 2008 |title=Social support and resilience to stress across the life span: a neurobiologic framework |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=304–310 |doi=10.1007/s11920-008-0049-7 |pmid=18627668 |s2cid=34039857}}

Alongside such neurotransmitters, stress-induced alterations in brain structures, such as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus have been linked to mental health issues like depression and anxiety.{{Cite journal |last1=Russo |first1=Scott J. |last2=Murrough |first2=James W. |last3=Han |first3=Ming-Hu |last4=Charney |first4=Dennis S. |last5=Nestler |first5=Eric J. |date=14 October 2012 |title=Neurobiology of resilience |journal=Nature Neuroscience |language=En |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=1475–1484 |doi=10.1038/nn.3234 |pmid=23064380 |issn=1546-1726|pmc=3580862 }} The increased activation of the medial prefrontal cortex and glutamatergic circuits has emerged as a potential factor in enhancing resilience as “environmental enrichment… increases the complexity of… pyramidal neurons in hippocampus and PFC, suggesting… a shared feature of resilience under these two distinct condition[s]."

The first research on resilience was published in 1973. The study used epidemiology—the study of disease prevalence—to uncover the risks and the protective factors that now help define resilience.{{cite book|vauthors=Garmezy N|year=1973|chapter=Competence and adaptation in adult schizophrenic patients and children at risk|pages=163–204|veditors=Dean SR|title=Schizophrenia: The first ten Dean Award Lectures|location=N.Y.|publisher=MSS Information Corp.}} A year later, the same group of researchers created tools to look at systems that support development of resilience.{{cite journal |vauthors=Garmezy N, Streitman S |year=1974 |title=Children at risk: the search for the antecedents of schizophrenia. Part I. Conceptual models and research methods |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=14–90 |doi=10.1093/schbul/1.8.14 |pmid=4619494 |doi-access=free}}

Emmy Werner was one of the early scientists to use the term resilience. She studied a cohort of children from Kauai, Hawaii. Kauai was quite poor and many of the children in the study grew up with alcoholic or mentally ill parents. Many of the parents were also out of work.{{cite book |title=The Children of Kauai: A Longitudinal Study from the Prenatal Period to Age Ten |vauthors=Werner EE |year=1971 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-87022-860-5 |location=Honolulu}} Werner noted that of the children who grew up in these detrimental situations, two-thirds exhibited destructive behaviors in their later-teen years, such as chronic unemployment, substance abuse, and out-of-wedlock births (in girls). However, one-third of these youths did not exhibit destructive behaviors. Werner called the latter group resilient. Thus, resilient children and their families were those who, by definition, demonstrated traits that allowed them to be more successful than non-resilient children and families.

Resilience also emerged as a major theoretical and research topic in the 1980s in studies of children with mothers diagnosed with schizophrenia.{{cite journal |vauthors=Masten AS, Best KM, Garmezy N |year=1990 |title=Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity |journal=Development and Psychopathology |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=425–444 |doi=10.1017/S0954579400005812 |s2cid=145342630}} A 1989 study{{cite book |title=The emergence of a discipline: Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology |vauthors=Masten AS |date=1989 |publisher=Erlbaum |isbn=978-0-8058-0553-6 |veditors=Cicchetti D |volume=1 |location=Hillsdale, N.J. |pages=261–294 |chapter=Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology}} showed that children with a schizophrenic parent may not obtain an appropriate level of comforting caregiving—compared to children with healthy parents—and that such situations often had a detrimental impact on children's development. On the other hand, some children of ill parents thrived and were competent in academic achievement, which led researchers to make efforts to understand such responses to adversity.

Since the onset of the research on resilience, researchers have been devoted to discovering protective factors that explain people's adaptation to adverse conditions, such as maltreatment,{{cite journal |vauthors=Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA |year=1997 |title=The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children |journal=Development and Psychopathology |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=797–815 |doi=10.1017/S0954579497001442 |pmid=9449006 |s2cid=29740206}} catastrophic life events,{{cite journal |vauthors=Fredrickson BL, Tugade MM, Waugh CE, Larkin GR |year= 2003 |title=What good are positive emotions in crises? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=365–376 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.365 |pmc=2755263 |pmid=12585810}} or urban poverty.{{cite book |title=Poverty and children's adjustment |vauthors=Luthar SS |year=1999 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0-7619-0518-9 |location=Newbury Park, Calif.}} Researchers endeavor to uncover how some factors (e.g. connection to family) may contribute to positive outcomes.

Temperamental and constitutional disposition is a major factor in resilience. It is one of the necessary precursors of resilience along with warmth in family cohesion and accessibility of prosocial support systems.{{cite book |title=Handbook of positive psychology |vauthors=Masten AS, Reed MG |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803094-2 |veditors=Snyder CR, Lopez SJ |location=London |pages=74–88 |chapter=Resilience in development |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Cr5rP8jOnsC&pg=PA74}} There are three kinds of temperamental systems that play part in resilience: the appetitive system, defensive system, and attentional system.{{cite journal |vauthors=Derryberry D, Reed MA, Pilkenton-Taylor C |date=14 November 2003 |title=Temperament and coping: advantages of an individual differences perspective |journal=Development and Psychopathology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1049–1066 |doi=10.1017/s0954579403000439 |pmid=14984137 |s2cid=18226488}}

Trait resilience is negatively correlated with the personality traits of neuroticism and negative emotionality, which represent tendencies to see and react to the world as threatening, problematic, and distressing, and to view oneself as vulnerable. Trait resilience is positively correlated with personality traits of openness and positive emotionality, which are associated with tendencies to approach and confront problems with confidence, while also maintaining autonomy and fostering adaptability to those life changes.Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of personality and social psychology, 86(2), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320

Resilience traits are personal characteristics that express how people approach and react to events that they experience as negative.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Maltby J, Hall SS |date = April 2022 |title=Less is more. Discovering the latent factors of trait resilience |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |language=en |volume=97 |pages=104193 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104193 |issn=0092-6566|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Maltby J, Day L, Hall SS, Chivers S | title = The Measurement and Role of Ecological Resilience Systems Theory Across Domain-Specific Outcomes: The Domain-Specific Resilient Systems Scales | journal = Assessment | volume = 26 | issue = 8 | pages = 1444–1461 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 29083233 | doi = 10.1177/1073191117738045 | s2cid = 206657002 | url = https://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/29386/1/29386%20LRA_Maltby_DRSS_Assessment.pdf }} Trait resilience is generally considered via two methods: direct assessment of traits through resilience measures and proxy assessments of resilience in which existing cognate psychological constructs are used to explain resilient outcomes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Maltby J, Day L, Hall S | title = Refining Trait Resilience: Identifying Engineering, Ecological, and Adaptive Facets from Extant Measures of Resilience | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 7 | pages = e0131826 | date = 2015-07-01 | pmid = 26132197 | pmc = 4488934 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0131826 | bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1031826M | doi-access = free }} Typically, trait resilience measures explore how individuals tend to react to and cope with adverse events. Proxy assessments of resilience, sometimes referred to as the buffering approach,{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson J, Wood AM, Gooding P, Taylor PJ, Tarrier N | title = Resilience to suicidality: the buffering hypothesis | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 563–591 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21276646 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.007 }}{{Cite journal | vauthors = Tronick E, DiCorcia JA |date= June 2015 |title=The Everyday Stress Resilience Hypothesis: A Reparatory Sensitivity and the Development of Coping and Resilience |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1035077215000115/type/journal_article|url-access=subscription |journal=Children Australia |language=en |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=124–138 |doi=10.1017/cha.2015.11 |s2cid= 147249680 |issn=1035-0772}} view resilience as the antithesis of risk, focusing on how psychological processes interrelate with negative events to mitigate their effects. Possibly an individual perseverance trait, conceptually related to persistence and resilience, could also be measured behaviorally by means of arduous, difficult, or otherwise unpleasant tasks.{{cite journal | vauthors = Määttänen I, Makkonen E, Jokela M, Närväinen J, Väliaho J, Seppälä V, Kylmälä J, Henttonen P | title = Evidence for a Behaviourally Measurable Perseverance Trait in Humans | journal = Behavioral Sciences | volume = 11 | issue = 9 | date = 2021 | page = 123 | doi = 10.3390/bs11090123 | pmid = 34562961 | pmc = 8468401 | doi-access = free }}

There are several theories or models that attempt to describe subcomponents, prerequisites, predictors, or correlates of resilience.

Fletcher and Sarkar found five factors that develop and sustain a person's resilience:

1. the ability to make realistic plans and being capable of taking the steps necessary to follow through with them
2. confidence in one's strengths and abilities
3. communication and problem-solving skills
4. the ability to manage strong impulses and feelings
5. having good self-esteem

Among older adults, Kamalpour et al. found that the important factors are external connections, grit, independence, self-care, self-acceptance, altruism, hardship experience, health status, and positive perspective on life.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kamalpour M, Watson J, Buys L |title=How can online communities support resilience factors among older adults |journal=International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction |date=2020 |volume=36 |issue=14 |pages=1342–1353 |doi=10.1080/10447318.2020.1749817|s2cid=216158876 }}

Another study examined thirteen high-achieving professionals who seek challenging situations that require resilience, all of whom had experienced challenges in the workplace and negative life events over the course of their careers but who had also been recognized for their great achievements in their respective fields. Participants were interviewed about everyday life in the workplace as well as their experiences with resilience and thriving. The study found six main predictors of resilience: positive and proactive personality, experience and learning, sense of control, flexibility and adaptability, balance and perspective, and perceived social support. High achievers were also found to engage in many activities unrelated to their work such as engaging in hobbies, exercising, and organizing meetups with friends and loved ones.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sarkar M, Fletcher D |year=2014 |title=Ordinary magic, extraordinary performance: Psychological resilience and thriving in high achievers |url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/25828/1/221284_PubSub2842_Sarkar.pdf |journal=Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology |volume=3 |pages=46–60 |doi=10.1037/spy0000003}}

The American Psychological Association, in its popular psychology-oriented Psychology topics publication, suggests the following tactics people can use to build resilience:{{cite web |title=Building your resilience|year=2020 |url=https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience/building-your-resilience |work=American Psychological Association}}

• Prioritize relationships.
• Join a social group.
• Take care of your body.
• Practice mindfulness.
• Avoid negative coping outlets (like alcohol use).
• Help others.
• Be proactive; search for solutions.
• Make progress toward your goals.
• Look for opportunities for self-discovery.
• Keep things in perspective.
• Accept change.
• Maintain a hopeful outlook.
• Learn from your past.

The idea that one can build one's resilience implies that resilience is a developable characteristic, and so is perhaps at odds with the theory that resilience is a process.{{cite book |title=Developmental psychopathology and wellness: Genetic and environmental influences |vauthors=Rutter M |date=2008 |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |isbn=978-1-58562-279-5 |veditors=Hudziak JJ |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=3–22 |chapter=Developing concepts in developmental psychopathology}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Masten AS |date=March 2001 |title=Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development |journal=The American Psychologist |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=227–238 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227 |pmid=11315249 |s2cid=19940228}}

The relationship between positive emotions and resilience has been extensively studied. People who maintain positive emotions while they face adversity are more flexibile in their thinking and problem solving. Positive emotions also help people recover from stressful experiences. People who maintain positive emotions are better-defended from the physiological effects of negative emotions, and are better-equipped to cope adaptively, to build enduring social resources, and to enhance their well-being.{{cite journal |vauthors=Fredrickson BL, Branigan C |date=May 2005 |title=Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires |journal=Cognition & Emotion |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=313–332 |doi=10.1080/02699930441000238 |pmc=3156609 |pmid=21852891}}

The ability to consciously monitor the factors that influence one's mood is correlated with a positive emotional state.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fredrickson BL | title = The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 218–226 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11315248 | pmc = 3122271 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218 }} This is not to say that positive emotions are merely a by-product of resilience, but rather that feeling positive emotions during stressful experiences may have adaptive benefits in the coping process.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tugade MM, Fredrickson BL | title = Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 86 | issue = 2 | pages = 320–333 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14769087 | pmc = 3132556 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320 }} Resilient people who have a propensity for coping strategies that concretely elicit positive emotions—such as benefit-finding and cognitive reappraisal, humor, optimism, and goal-directed problem-focused coping—may strengthen their resistance to stress by allocating more access to these positive emotional resources.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ong AD, Bergeman CS, Bisconti TL, Wallace KA | title = Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 730–749 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17014296 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.730 | s2cid = 3080937 }} Social support from caring adults encouraged resilience among participants by providing them with access to conventional activities.{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1111/fare.12134 | volume=64| issue=4|journal=Family Relations|pages=505–518| title=Examining Social Support Among Adult Children of Incarcerated Parents| year=2015| vauthors = Luther K }}{{Relevance inline|reason=unclear how this sentence supports the topic of the paragraph|date=September 2023}}

Positive emotions have physiological consequences. For example, humor leads to improvements in immune system functioning and increases in levels of salivary immunoglobulin A, a vital system antibody, which serves as the body's first line of defense in respiratory illnesses.{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Mahony DL, Burroughs WJ, Lippman LG | title = Perceived attributes of health-promoting laughter: a cross-generational comparison | journal = The Journal of Psychology | volume = 136 | issue = 2 | pages = 171–181 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 12081092 | doi = 10.1080/00223980209604148 | s2cid = 41596525 }}

|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Dillon KM, Minchoff B, Baker KH | title = Positive emotional states and enhancement of the immune system | journal = International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–18 | year = 1985 | pmid = 4055243 | doi = 10.2190/R7FD-URN9-PQ7F-A6J7 | s2cid = 1308205}}

}} Other health outcomes{{clarify|reason=from humor specifically or from positive emotions in general?|date=September 2023}} include faster injury recovery rate and lower readmission rates to hospitals for the elderly, and reductions in the length of hospital stay.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} One study has found early indications that older adults who have increased levels of psychological resilience have decreased odds of death or inability to walk after recovering from hip fracture surgery.{{Cite journal |last=The REGAIN (Regional versus General Anesthesia for Promoting Independence after Hip Fracture) Investigators |date=2023-09-12 |title=Preoperative psychological resilience and recovery after hip fracture: Secondary analysis of the REGAIN randomized trial |journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society |volume=71 |issue=12 |pages=3792–3801 |language=en |doi=10.1111/jgs.18552 |pmid=37698304 |issn=0002-8614|doi-access=free }} In another study, trait-resilient individuals experiencing positive emotions more quickly rebounded from cardiovascular activation that was initially generated by negative emotional arousal.

Social support is an important factor in the development of resilience.{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Theron L, van Rensburg A | title = Resilience over time: Learning from school-attending adolescents living in conditions of structural inequality | journal = Journal of Adolescence | volume = 67 | pages = 167–178 | date = August 2018 | pmid = 29980070 | doi = 10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.012 | s2cid = 49715217 }}

|2={{cite journal | vauthors = Gagnon AJ, Stewart DE | title = Resilience in international migrant women following violence associated with pregnancy | journal = Archives of Women's Mental Health | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 303–310 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 24221406 | doi = 10.1007/s00737-013-0392-5 | s2cid = 22177086 }}

}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Abraham R, Lien L, Hanssen I | title = Coping, resilience and posttraumatic growth among Eritrean female refugees living in Norwegian asylum reception centres: A qualitative study | journal = The International Journal of Social Psychiatry | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 359–366 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29584520 | doi = 10.1177/0020764018765237 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 4377728 | hdl = 10852/95636 }} While many competing definitions of social support exist, they tend to concern one's degree of access to, and use of, strong ties to other people who are similar to oneself.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lin N, Woelfel MW, Light SC | title = The buffering effect of social support subsequent to an important life event | journal = Journal of Health and Social Behavior | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 247–263 | date = September 1985 | pmid = 4067240 | doi = 10.2307/2136756 | jstor = 2136756 }} Social support requires solidarity and trust, intimate communication, and mutual obligation{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearlin LI, Lieberman MA, Menaghan EG, Mullan JT | title = The stress process | journal = Journal of Health and Social Behavior | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 337–356 | date = December 1981 | pmid = 7320473 | doi = 10.2307/2136676 | s2cid = 5162220 | jstor = 2136676 }} both within and outside the family.

Military studies have found that resilience is also dependent on group support: unit cohesion and morale is the best predictor of combat resiliency within a unit or organization. Resilience is highly correlated with peer support and group cohesion. Units with high cohesion tend to experience a lower rate of psychological breakdowns than units with low cohesion and morale. High cohesion and morale enhance adaptive stress reactions.{{citation|publisher=Department of the Army|year=2009|series=Field Manual|volume=6-22.5|title=Combat and Operational Stress Control Manual for Leaders and Soldiers|location=Washington, D.C.|page=32}} War veterans who had more social support were less likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rakesh G, Clausen AN, Buckley MN, Clarke-Rubright E, Fairbank JA, Wagner HR, Morey RA | title = The role of trauma, social support, and demography on veteran resilience | journal = European Journal of Psychotraumatology | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 2058267 | date = 2022 | pmid = 35599980 | pmc = 9116243 | doi = 10.1080/20008198.2022.2058267 }}

A number of self-help approaches to resilience-building have been developed, drawing mainly on cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT).{{Cite book |title=Build Your Resilience |vauthors=Robertson D |publisher=Hodder |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4441-6871-6 |location=London}} For example, a group cognitive-behavioral intervention, called the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP), fosters aspects of resilience. A meta-analysis of 17 PRP studies showed that the intervention significantly reduces depressive symptoms over time.{{cite journal |vauthors=Brunwasser SM, Gillham JE, Kim ES |date=December 2009 |title=A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program's effect on depressive symptoms |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1042–1054 |doi=10.1037/a0017671 |pmc=4667774 |pmid=19968381}}

In CBT, building resilience is a matter of mindfully changing behaviors and thought patterns.{{cite journal |vauthors=Padesky CA, Mooney KA |date=2012-06-01 |title=Strengths-based cognitive-behavioural therapy: a four-step model to build resilience |journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=283–290 |doi=10.1002/cpp.1795 |pmid=22653834 |doi-access=free}} The first step is to change the nature of self-talk—the internal monologue people have that reinforces beliefs about their self-efficacy and self-value. To build resilience, a person needs to replace negative self-talk, such as "I can't do this" and "I can't handle this", with positive self-talk. This helps to reduce psychological stress when a person faces a difficult challenge. The second step is to prepare for challenges, crises, and emergencies.{{cite news |date=24 January 2019 |title=Why people in the US south stay put in the face of climate change |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/24/us-south-climate-change |access-date=3 February 2019 |vauthors=Bergman MM}} Businesses prepare by creating emergency response plans, business continuity plans, and contingency plans. Similarly, an individual can create a financial cushion to help with economic stressors, maintain supportive social networks, and develop emergency response plans.

Language learning and communication help develop resilience in people who travel, study abroad, work internationally, or in those who find themselves as refugees in countries where their home language is not spoken.

Research conducted by the British Council found a strong relationship between language and resilience in refugees.{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Language for Resilience: The Role of Language in Enhancing the Resilience of Syrian Refugees and Host Communities, with a foreword by the UNHCR. |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/language-for-resilience-report-en.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171106144550/https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/language-for-resilience-report-en.pdf|archive-date=2017-11-06 |website=British Council |vauthors=Capstick T, Delaney M}} Providing adequate English-learning programs and support for Syrian refugees builds resilience not only in the individual, but also in the host community. Language builds resilience in five ways:

; home language and literacy development : Development of home language and literacy helps create the foundation for a shared identity. By maintaining the home language, even when displaced, a person not only learns better in school, but enhances their ability to learn other languages. This improves resilience by providing a shared culture and sense of identity that allows refugees to maintain close relationships to others who share their identity and sets them up to possibly return one day.

; access to education, training, and employment : This allows refugees to establish themselves in their host country and provides more ease when attempting to access information, apply to work or school, or obtain professional documentation. Securing access to education or employment is largely dependent on language competency, and both education and employment provide security and success that enhance resilience and confidence.

; learning together and social cohesion : Learning together encourages resilience through social cohesion and networks. When refugees engage in language-learning activities with host communities, engagement and communication increases. Both refugee and host community are more likely to celebrate diversity, share their stories, build relationships, engage in the community, and provide each other with support. This creates a sense of belonging with the host communities alongside the sense of belonging established with other members of the refugee community through home language.

; addressing the effects of trauma on learning : Additionally, language programs and language learning can help address the effects of trauma by providing a means to discuss and understand. Refugees are more capable of expressing their trauma, including the effects of loss, when they can effectively communicate with their host community. Especially in schools, language learning establishes safe spaces through storytelling, which further reinforces comfort with a new language, and can in turn lead to increased resilience.

; building inclusivity : This is more focused on providing resources. By providing institutions or schools with more language-based learning and cultural material, the host community can learn how to better address the needs of the refugee community. This feeds back into the increased resilience of refugees by creating a sense of belonging and community.

Another study shows the impacts of storytelling in building resilience. It aligns with many of the five factors identified by the study completed by the British Council, as it emphasizes the importance of sharing traumatic experiences through language.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen K, Stanley N, Stanley L, Wang Y |date=2015 |title=Resilience in Language Learners and the Relationship to Storytelling |journal=Cogent Education |volume=2 |page=991160 |doi=10.1080/2331186X.2014.991160 |doi-access=free}} It showed that those who were exposed to more stories, from family or friends, had a more holistic view of life's struggles, and were thus more resilient, especially when surrounded by foreign languages or attempting to learn a new language.

{{See also|Compensatory education}}

The Head Start program promotes resilience,{{Cite journal |vauthors=Werner EE |year=1997 |title=The Value of Applied Research for Head Start: Perspective a Cross-Cultural and Longitudinal |journal=NHSA Research Quarterly |volume=1 |pages=15–24 |doi=10.1207/s19309325nhsa0101_2}} as does the Big Brothers Big Sisters Programme,{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} Centered Coaching & Consulting,{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}}, the Abecedarian Early Intervention Project,{{multiref2

|1={{cite web |title=Abecedarian Project (High-quality child care/preschool for children from disadvantaged backgrounds) |url=http://www.evidencebasedprograms.org/Default.aspx?tabid=33 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050312004645/http://www.evidencebasedprograms.org/Default.aspx?tabid=33 |archive-date=March 12, 2005 |work=evidencebasedprograms.org}}

|2={{cite web |date=2007-05-22 |title=The Carolina Abecedarian Project |url=http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~abc/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828002413/http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~abc/ |archive-date=2010-08-28 |access-date=2010-09-16 |publisher=Fpg.unc.edu}}

}} and social programs for youth with emotional or behavioral difficulties.{{cite journal |vauthors=Sinclair MF, Christenson SL, Thurlow ML |year=2005 |title=Promoting School Completion of Urban Secondary Youth With Emotional or Behavioral Disabilities |url=http://www.iod.unh.edu/APEX%20Trainings/Tier%202%20Manual/Additional%20Reading/3.%20Check%20and%20Connect.pdf|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090350/http://www.iod.unh.edu/APEX%20Trainings/Tier%202%20Manual/Additional%20Reading/3.%20Check%20and%20Connect.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|journal=Exceptional Children |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=465–482 |doi=10.1177/001440290507100405 |s2cid=143147646}}

The Positive Behavior Supports and Intervention program is a trauma-informed, resilience-based program for elementary age students.{{Cite web |vauthors=Ray M|date=2020-06-18 |title=PBIS in Trauma-Informed Resilience-Focused Schools |url=https://starr.org/pbis-in-trauma-informed-resilience-focused-schools/ |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=Starr Commonwealth |language=en-US}}{{Promotion inline|date=September 2023}} It has four components: positive reinforcements such as encouraging feedback; understanding that behavior is a response to unmet needs or a survival response; promoting belonging, mastery, and independence; and creating an environment to support the student through sensory tools, mental health breaks, and play.

Tuesday's Children, a family service organization, works to build psychological resilience through programs such as Mentoring and Project Common Bond, an eight-day peace-building and leadership initiative for people aged 15–20, from around the world, who have been directly impacted by terrorism.{{cite news |date=August 1, 2011 |title=Teens Affected By Terrorism United to Promote Peace |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/teens-affected-by-terrorism-unite-to-promote-peace/2011/07/29/gIQAEHwmnI_story.html |access-date=21 June 2012 |vauthors=Gibson C}}{{Promotion inline|date=September 2023}}

Military organizations test personnel for the ability to function under stressful circumstances by deliberately subjecting them to stress during training. Those students who do not exhibit the necessary resilience can be screened out of the training. Those who remain can be given stress inoculation training. The process is repeated as personnel apply for increasingly demanding positions, such as special forces.{{Citation |title=Enhancing Performance Under Stress: Stress Inoculation Training for Battlefield Airmen |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR700/RR750/RAND_RR750.pdf |year=2014 |place=Santa Monica, Calif. |publisher=RAND Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-7844-5 |vauthors=Robson S, Manacapilli T}}

An example of psychological resilience can be seen in survivors of natural disasters who manage to rebuild their lives despite profound personal loss. Such individuals often demonstrate adaptability, emotional strength, and a capacity to regain stability after trauma.Southwick, S.M., & Charney, D.S. (2012). Resilience: The Science of Mastering Life's Greatest Challenges. Cambridge University Press.

Another protective factor involves external social support, which helps moderate the negative effects of environmental hazards or stressful situations and guides vulnerable individuals toward optimistic paths.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} One study distinguished three contexts for protective factors:{{cite journal |vauthors=Werner EE |year=1995 |title=Resilience in development |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=81–85 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772327 |s2cid=143879633}}

1. Personal Attributes: Traits such as an outgoing personality, perceptiveness, and a positive self-concept.
2. Family Environment: Close and supportive relationships with at least one family member or an emotionally stable parent.
3. Community Support: Support and guidance from peers and community members.

A study of the elderly in Zurich, Switzerland, illuminated the role humor plays to help people remain happy in the face of age-related adversity.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ruch W, Proyer RT, Weber M |date=February 2010 |title=Humor as a character strength among the elderly: empirical findings on age-related changes and its contribution to satisfaction with life |journal=Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=13–18 |doi=10.1007/s00391-009-0090-0 |pmid=20012063 |s2cid=25341461|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/25838/11/ZORA_NL_25838.pdf }}

Research has also been conducted into individual differences in resilience. Self-esteem, ego-control, and ego-resiliency are related to behavioral adaptation{{Definition needed|date=September 2023}}.{{cite journal |vauthors=Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA, Lynch M, Holt KD |year=1993 |title=Resilience in maltreated children: Processes leading to adaptive outcome |journal=Development and Psychopathology |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=629–647 |doi=10.1017/S0954579400006209 |s2cid=145698486}} Maltreated children who feel good about themselves may process risk situations differently by {{clarify|reason=what does it mean to attribute a reason to an environment? "different" as in "various" or different as in different-from something-or-other?|text=attributing different reasons to the environments they experience|date=September 2023}} and, thereby, avoiding negative internalized self-perceptions. Ego-control is "the threshold or operating characteristics of an individual with regard to the expression or containment"{{cite book |title=Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology |vauthors=Block JH, Block J |date=1980 |publisher=Erlbaum |isbn=978-0-89859-023-4 |veditors=Collins WA |volume=13 |location=Hillsdale, N.J. |chapter=The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organisation of behaviour}}{{rp|43}} of their impulses, feelings, and desires. Ego-resilience refers to the "dynamic capacity{{Definition needed|date=September 2023}}, to modify his or her model level{{Definition needed|date=September 2023}} of ego-control, in either direction, as a function of the demand characteristics{{Definition needed|date=September 2023}} of the environmental context"{{r|Block_1980|page=43}}

Demographic information (e.g., gender) and resources (e.g., social support) also predict resilience. After disaster women tend to show less resilience than men, and people who were less involved in affinity groups and organisations also showed less resilience.{{cite journal |author1-link=George Bonanno |vauthors=Bonanno GA, Galea S, Bucciarelli A, Vlahov D |date=October 2007 |title=What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=671–682 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.75.5.671 |pmid=17907849 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2027.42/56241}}

Certain aspects of religions, spirituality, or mindfulness could promote or hinder certain psychological virtues that increase resilience. However, {{as of|2009|alt=as of 2009}} the "there has not yet been much direct empirical research looking specifically at the association of religion and ordinary strengths and virtues".{{cite book |title=The psychology of religion: An empirical approach |vauthors=Hood R, Hill P, Spilka B |date=2009 |publisher=The Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-60623-392-4 |edition=4th |location=New York}} In a review of the literature on the relationship between religiosity/spirituality and PTSD, about half of the studies showed a positive relationship and half showed a negative relationship between measures of religiosity/spirituality and resilience.{{cite journal |vauthors=Peres JF, Moreira-Almeida A, Nasello AG, Koenig HG |year=2007 |title=Spirituality and resilience in trauma victims |journal=Journal of Religion & Health |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=343–350 |doi=10.1007/s10943-006-9103-0 |s2cid=10875524}} The United States Army was criticized for promoting spirituality in its Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program as a way to prevent PTSD, due to the lack of conclusive supporting data.{{cite journal |last1=Steenkamp |first1=Maria M. |last2=Nash |first2=William P. |last3=Litz |first3=Brett T. |title=Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |date=May 2013 |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=507–512 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2013.01.013 }}

Forgiveness plays a role in resilience among patients with chronic pain (but not in the severity of the pain).{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mohammadi N, Afshar H |year=2016|title=The role of interpersonal forgiveness in resilience and severity of pain in chronic pain patients |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320617960 |access-date=2020-02-13 |journal=Fundamentals of Mental Health|volume=18|number=4|pages=212–219 |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=O’Beirne |first1=Sheena |last2=Katsimigos |first2=Anna-Maria |last3=Harmon |first3=Dominic |title=Forgiveness and chronic pain: a systematic review |journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) |date=November 2020 |volume=189 |issue=4 |pages=1359–1364 |doi=10.1007/s11845-020-02200-y |pmid=32125628 }}{{clarify|reason=What role does forgiveness play? What is the direction and strength of the correlation between forgiveness and resilience?|date=September 2023}}

Resilience is also enhanced in people who develop effective coping skills for stress.{{cite journal |vauthors=Chua LW, Milfont TL, Jose PE |date=November 2015 |title=Coping Skills Help Explain How Future-Oriented Adolescents Accrue Greater Well-Being Over Time |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |volume=44 |issue=11 |pages=2028–2041 |doi=10.1007/s10964-014-0230-8 |pmid=25427783 |s2cid=28229478}} Coping skills help people reduce stress levels, so they remain functional. Coping skills include using meditation, exercise, socialization, and self-care practices to maintain a healthy level of stress.

Bibliotherapy, positive tracking of events, and enhancing psychosocial protective factors with positive psychological resources are other methods for resilience building.{{cite book |title=Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities |vauthors=Yates TM, Egeland B, Sroufe LA |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00161-8 |veditors=Luthar SS |location=New York |pages=234–256 |chapter=Rethinking resilience: A developmental process perspective}} Increasing a person's arsenal of coping skills builds resilience.{{cite journal |vauthors=Shastri PC |date=July 2013 |title=Resilience: Building immunity in psychiatry |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=224–234 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.117134 |pmc=3777343 |pmid=24082242 |doi-access=free }}

A study of 230 adults, diagnosed with depression and anxiety, showed that emotional regulation contributed to resilience in patients.{{cite journal |vauthors=Min JA, Yu JJ, Lee CU, Chae JH |date=November 2013 |title=Cognitive emotion regulation strategies contributing to resilience in patients with depression and/or anxiety disorders |journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=1190–1197 |doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.05.008 |pmid=23806709}} The emotional regulation strategies focused on planning, positively reappraising events, and reducing rumination. Patients with improved resilience experienced better treatment outcomes than patients with non-resilience focused treatment plans. This suggests psychotherapeutic interventions may better handle mental disorders by focusing on psychological resilience.

Other factors associated with resilience include the capacity to make realistic plans, self-confidence and a positive self image,{{cite journal |vauthors=Elm JH, Lewis JP, Walters KL, Self JM |date=June 2016 |title='I'm in this world for a reason': Resilience and recovery among American Indian and Alaska Native two-spirit women |journal=Journal of Lesbian Studies |volume=20 |issue=3–4 |pages=352–371 |doi=10.1080/10894160.2016.1152813 |pmc=6424359 |pmid=27254761}} communications skills, and the capacity to manage strong feelings and impulses.{{cite web |title=The Road to Resilience|author=American Psychological Association|year=2014|location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://studentsuccess.unc.edu/files/2015/08/The-Road-to-Resiliency.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222115413/http://studentsuccess.unc.edu/files/2015/08/The-Road-to-Resiliency.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-22 |access-date=2010-09-16 |publisher=unc.edu}}

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are events that occur in a child's life that could lead to maladaptive symptoms such as tension, low mood, repetitive and recurring thoughts, and {{Vague|reason=by whom of what?|text=avoidance of things associated with the adverse event|date=September 2023}}.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Milanak ME, Miller MW, Keyes KM, Friedman MJ | title = National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 537–547 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24151000 | pmc = 4096796 | doi = 10.1002/jts.21848 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tranter H, Brooks M, Khan R | title = Emotional resilience and event centrality mediate posttraumatic growth following adverse childhood experiences | journal = Psychological Trauma | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 165–173 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 32881570 | doi = 10.1037/tra0000953 | s2cid = 221497147 | url = https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/33661/1/Tranter%2C%20Brooks%2C%20%26%20Khan%20%282020%2C%20accepted%29%20CLoK.pdf }}

Maltreated children who experience some risk factors (e.g., single parenting, limited maternal education, or family unemployment), show lower ego-resilience and intelligence than children who were not maltreated. Maltreated children are also more likely to withdraw and demonstrate {{clarify|reason=the verb "withdraw" is treated like an adjective in this sentence structure; also, this categorization of behavior problems is not common-knowledge or obvious and so needs some explanation|text=disruptive-aggressive and internalized|date=September 2023}} behavior problems. Ego-resiliency and positive self-esteem predict competent adaptation{{Definition needed|date=September 2023}} in maltreated children.

Psychological resilience which helps overcome adverse events does not solely explain why some children experience post-traumatic growth and some do not.

Resilience is the product of a number of developmental processes over time that allow children to experience small exposures to adversity or age appropriate challenges and develop skills to handle those challenges. This gives children a sense of pride and self-worth.{{cite book| vauthors = Wolin SJ, Wolin S |title=The Resilient Self: How Survivors of Troubled Families Rise Above Adversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UF3-Wjg4SoC|url-access=limited|year=2010|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-75687-9}}

Two "protective factors"—characteristics of children or situations that help children in the context of risk—are good cognitive functioning (like cognitive self-regulation{{Definition needed|date=September 2023}} and IQ) and positive relationships (especially with competent adults, like parents).{{cite book | vauthors = Luthar SS | date = 2006 | chapter = Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades | pages = 739–795 | veditors = Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ | title = Developmental Psychopathology | edition = 2nd | volume = 3rd: Risk, Disorder, and Adaptation | location = Hoboken, N.J. | publisher = Wiley and Sons }} Children who have protective factors in their lives tend to do better in some risky contexts. However, children do better when not exposed to high levels of risk or adversity.

There are a few protective factors of young children that are consistent over differences in culture and stressors (poverty, war, divorce of parents, natural disasters, etc.):{{cite AV media |publisher=PopTech |author=Masten A |year=2013 |title=Inside resilient children |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBMet8oIvXQ |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212172547/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBMet8oIvXQ |archive-date=2019-02-12 |access-date=18 April 2019 |website=YouTube }}

• capable parenting
• other close relationships
• intelligence
• self-control
• motivation to succeed
• self-confidence and self-efficacy
• faith, hope, belief life has meaning
• effective{{Specify|reason=at effecting what?|date=September 2023}} schools
• effective{{Specify|reason=at effecting what?|date=September 2023}} communities
• effective{{Specify|reason=at effecting what?|date=September 2023}} cultural practices

Ann Masten calls these protective factors "ordinary magic"—the ordinary human adaptive systems that are shaped by biological and cultural evolution. In her book, Ordinary Magic: Resilience in Development, she discusses the "immigrant paradox", the phenomenon that first-generation immigrant youth are more resilient than their children. Researchers hypothesize that "there may be culturally based resiliency that is lost with succeeding generations as they become distanced from their culture of origin." Another hypothesis is that those who choose to immigrate are more likely to be more resilient.{{cite journal |vauthors=Buhs ES, Rudasill KM |date=2016 |title=Review of ordinary magic: resilience in development by Ann S. Masten |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1228&context=edpsychpapers |journal=Educational Psychology Papers and Publications |volume=46 |pages=84–85 |doi=10.1016/j.appdev.2016.05.001 |access-date=18 April 2019}}

Trauma is defined as an emotional response to distressing event, and PTSD is a mental disorder the develops after a person has experienced a dangerous event, for instance car accident or environmental disaster. The findings of a study conducted on a sample of 226 individuals who had experienced trauma indicate a positive association between resilience and enhanced nonverbal memory, as well as a measure of emotional learning. The findings of the study indicate that individuals who exhibited resilience demonstrated a lower incidence of depressed and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Conversely, those who lacked resilience exhibited a higher likelihood of experiencing unemployment and having a history of suicide attempts. The research additionally revealed that the experience of severe childhood abuse or exposure to trauma was correlated with a lack of resilience. The results indicate that resilience could potentially serve as a substitute measure for emotional learning, a process that is frequently impaired in stress-related mental disorders. This finding has the potential to enhance our comprehension of resilience.{{Cite journal |last1=Wingo |first1=Aliza P. |last2=Fani |first2=Negar |last3=Bradley |first3=Bekh |last4=Ressler |first4=Kerry J. |date=2010-02-23 |title=Psychological resilience and neurocognitive performance in a traumatized community sample |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20675 |journal=Depression and Anxiety |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=768–774 |doi=10.1002/da.20675 |pmid=20186970 |issn=1091-4269|pmc=2918658 }}

Sports provide benefits such as social support or a boost in self confidence. The findings of a study investigating the correlation between resilience and symptom resolution in adolescents and young adults who have experienced sport-related concussions (SRC) indicate that individuals with lower initial resilience ratings tend to exhibit a higher number and severity of post-concussion symptoms (PCSS), elevated levels of anxiety and depression, and a delayed recovery process from SRC. Additionally, the research revealed that those who initially scored lower on resilience assessments were less inclined to describe a sense of returning to their pre-injury state and experienced more pronounced exacerbation of symptoms resulting from both physical and cognitive exertion, even after resuming sports or physical activity. This finding illustrates the significant impact that resilience can have on the process of physical and mental recovery.{{Cite journal |last1=Bunt |first1=Stephen C. |last2=Meredith-Duliba |first2=Tawny |last3=Didehhani |first3=Nyaz |last4=Hynan |first4=Linda S. |last5=LoBue |first5=Christian |last6=Stokes |first6=Mathew |last7=Miller |first7=Shane M. |last8=Bell |first8=Kathleen |last9=Batjer |first9=Hunt |last10=Cullum |first10=C. Munro |date=2021-08-09 |title=Resilience and recovery from sports related concussion in adolescents and young adults |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1990214 |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=677–688 |doi=10.1080/13803395.2021.1990214 |pmid=34720048 |s2cid=240355953 |issn=1380-3395}}

Family environments that are caring and stable, hold high expectations for children's behavior, and encourage participation by children in the life of the family are environments that more successfully foster resilience in children.{{cite book |title=Educational Resilience in Inner Cities |vauthors=Wang M, Haertel G, Walberg H |date=1994 |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |location=Hillsdale, N.J.}} Most resilient children have a strong relationship with at least one adult (not always a parent), and this relationship helps to diminish risk associated with family discord.

Parental resilience—the ability of parents to deliver competent high-quality parenting, despite the presence of risk factors—plays an important role in children's resilience. Understanding the characteristics of quality parenting is critical to the idea of parental resilience. However, resilience research has focused on the well-being of children, with limited academic attention paid to factors that may contribute to the resilience of parents.

Even if divorce produces stress, the availability of social support from family and community can reduce this stress and yield positive outcomes.{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/fosteringresilie00benarich |title=Drug-Free Schools & Communities: Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school and community |date=1991 |publisher=Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory |location=Portland, Ore. |vauthors=Benard B}}

A family that emphasizes the value of assigned chores, caring for brothers or sisters, and the contribution of part-time work in supporting the family helps to foster resilience.

Some practices that poor parents utilize help to promote resilience in families. These include frequent displays of warmth, affection, and emotional support; reasonable expectations for children combined with straightforward, not overly harsh discipline; family routines and celebrations; and the maintenance of common values regarding money and leisure.{{cite book |title=Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities. |vauthors=Cauce AM, Stewart A, Rodriguez MD, Cochran B, Ginzler J |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00161-8 |veditors=Luthar SS |location=Cambridge |pages=343–391 |chapter=Overcoming the Odds? Adolescent Development in the Context of Urban Poverty}} According to sociologist Christopher B. Doob, "Poor children growing up in resilient families have received significant support for doing well as they enter the social world—starting in daycare programs and then in schooling."{{cite book |title=Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society |vauthors=Doob CB |publisher=Pearson Education Inc. |year=2013 |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J.}}

The Besht model of natural resilience-building through parenting, in an ideal family with positive access and support from family and friends, has four key markers:{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

1. realistic upbringing
2. effective risk communications
3. positivity and restructuring of demanding situations
4. building self efficacy and hardiness

In this model, self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to organize and execute the courses of action required to achieve goals and hardiness is a composite of interrelated attitudes of commitment, control, and challenge.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

{{see also|Academic buoyancy}}

Resilient children in classroom environments work and play well{{definition|date=September 2023}}, hold high expectations, and demonstrate locus of control, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and autonomy.{{citation|vauthors=Garmezy N|year=1974|title=The study of children at risk: New perspectives for developmental psychopathology|work=82nd Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association|location=New Orleans, La.}} These things work together to prevent the debilitating behaviors that are associated with learned helplessness.

Research on Mexican–American high school students found that a sense of belonging to school was the only significant predictor of academic resilience, though a sense of belonging to family, a peer group, and a culture {{clarify|reason=what does it mean for these things to "indicate" resilience, and how does this differ from "predicting" resilience?|text=can also indicate|date=September 2023}} higher academic resilience. "Although cultural loyalty overall was not a significant predictor of resilience, certain cultural influences nonetheless contribute to resilient outcomes, like familism and cultural pride and awareness."{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzalez R, Padilla A |year= 1997 |title=The Academic Resilience of Mexican–American High School Students |journal=Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=301–317 |doi=10.1177/07399863970193004 |s2cid=143642546}} The results "indicate a negative relationship between cultural pride and the ethnic homogeneity of a school." The researchers hypothesize that "ethnicity becomes a salient and important characteristic in more ethnically diverse settings".

A strong connection with one's cultural identity is an important protective factor against stress and is indicative of increased resilience.{{cite web |last1=Grasso |first1=Damion |title=Harnessing cultural identity as a protective factor in minority mental health: Applications to children and families {{!}} Society of Clinical Psychology |url=https://div12.org/harnessing-cultural-identity-as-a-protective-factor-in-minority-mental-health-applications-to-children-and-families/ |access-date=15 December 2024 |date=8 May 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Ungar |first1=M. |title=Resilience across Cultures |journal=British Journal of Social Work |date=8 November 2006 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=218–235 |doi=10.1093/bjsw/bcl343 }} While classroom resources have been created to promote resilience in students, the most effective ways to ensure resilience in children is by protecting their natural adaptive systems from breaking down or being hijacked.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} At home, resilience can be promoted through a positive{{definition|date=September 2023}} home environment and emphasizing cultural practices and values. In school, this can be done by ensuring that each student develops and maintains a sense of belonging to the school through positive relationships with classroom peers and a caring teacher. A sense of belonging—whether it be in a culture, family, or another group—predicts resiliency against any given stressor.{{cite journal |last1=Scarf |first1=Damian |last2=Moradi |first2=Saleh |last3=McGaw |first3=Kate |last4=Hewitt |first4=Joshua |last5=Hayhurst |first5=Jillian G. |last6=Boyes |first6=Mike |last7=Ruffman |first7=Ted |last8=Hunter |first8=John A. |title=Somewhere I belong: Long-term increases in adolescents' resilience are predicted by perceived belonging to the in-group |journal=British Journal of Social Psychology |date=September 2016 |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=588–599 |doi=10.1111/bjso.12151 |pmid=27448617 }}{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Kelly-Ann |last2=Kern |first2=Margaret L. |last3=Rozek |first3=Christopher S. |last4=McInerney |first4=Dennis M. |last5=Slavich |first5=George M. |title=Belonging: a review of conceptual issues, an integrative framework, and directions for future research |journal=Australian Journal of Psychology |date=2 January 2021 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=87–102 |doi=10.1080/00049530.2021.1883409 |pmid=33958811 |pmc=8095671 }}

Communities play a role in fostering resilience. The clearest sign of a cohesive and supportive community is the presence of social organizations that provide healthy human development.{{cite journal | vauthors = Garmezy N | year = 1991 | title = Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty | journal = American Behavioral Scientist | volume = 34 | issue = 4| pages = 416–430 | doi = 10.1177/0002764291034004003 | s2cid = 143628559 }} Services are unlikely to be used unless there is good communication about them. Children who are repeatedly relocated do not benefit from these resources, as their opportunities for resilience-building community participation are disrupted with every relocation.{{cite web|url=http://www.moveboxer.com/content/pages/the-emotional-adjustment-of-moving-for-young-kids|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229174147/http://www.moveboxer.com/content/pages/the-emotional-adjustment-of-moving-for-young-kids|archive-date=2012-12-29|title=Emotional Adjustment of Moving for Young Kids| vauthors = Howard A |publisher=Moveboxer}}{{cite journal |last1=McLeod |first1=Christine |last2=Heriot |first2=Sandra |last3=Hunt |first3=Caroline |title=Changing Places: Resilience in Children Who Move |journal=Australian Journal of Education |date=August 2008 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=168–182 |doi=10.1177/000494410805200205 }}

Patients who show resilience to adverse events in childhood may have worse outcomes later in life. A study in the American Journal of Psychiatry interviewed 1420 participants with a Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment up to 8 times as children. Of those 1,266 were interviewed as adults, and this group had higher risks for anxiety, depression and problems with work or education. This was accompanied by worse physical health outcomes. The study authors posit that the goal of public health should be to reduce childhood trauma, and not promote resilience.{{cite journal |last1=Copeland |first1=William |last2=Halvorson-Phelan |first2=Julia |date=9 November 2023 |title=Adult Mental Health, Substance Use Disorders, and Functional Outcomes of Children Resilient to Early Adversity |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=180 |issue=12 |pages=906–913 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.20230038 |pmid=37941330 |pmc=11708488 }}

Cultivating resilience may be beneficial to all parties involved in divorce. The level of resilience a child will experience after their parents have split is dependent on both internal and external variables. Some of these variables include their psychological and physical state and the level of support they receive from their schools, friends, and family friends. Children differ{{Specify|reason=how do these different variables affect this capacity? that is, which ages/genders/temperaments show more resilience, which less?|date=September 2023}} by age, gender, and temperament in their capacity to cope with divorce. About 20–25% of children "demonstrate severe emotional and behavioral problems" when going through a divorce, compared to 10% of children exhibiting similar problems in married families.{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00352.x| title = Children's Adjustment Following Divorce: Risk and Resilience Perspectives| journal = Family Relations| volume = 52| issue = 4| pages = 352–362| year = 2003| vauthors = Kelly JB, Emery RE | doi-access = free}} Despite this, approximately 75–80% of these{{Specify|reason=by "these" do you mean children going through divorce, or children who demonstrate severe emotional and behavioral problems while going through divorce, or children who demonstrate severe emotional and behavioral problems full stop?|date=September 2023}} children will "develop into well-adjusted adults with no lasting psychological or behavioral problems". This goes to show that most children have the resilience needed to endure their parents' divorce.

The effects of the divorce extend past the separation of the parents. Residual conflict between parents, financial problems, and the re-partnering or remarriage of parents can cause stress. Studies have shown conflicting results about the effect of post-divorce conflict on a child's healthy adjustment. Divorce may reduce children's financial means and associated lifestyle. For example, economizing may mean a child cannot continue to participate in extracurricular activities such as sports and music lessons, which can be detrimental to their social lives.

A parent's repartnering or remarrying can add conflict and anger to a child's home environment. One reason re-partnering causes additional stress is because of the lack of clarity in roles and relationships; the child may not know how to react and behave with this new quasi-parent figure in their life. Bringing in a new partner/spouse may be most stressful when done shortly after the divorce. Divorce is not a single event, but encompasses multiple changes and challenges. Internal factors promote resiliency in the child, as do external factors in the environment. Certain programs such as the 14-week Children's Support Group and the Children of Divorce Intervention Program may help a child cope with the changes that occur from a divorce.{{cite journal|url=https://www.childrensinstitute.net/sites/default/files/documents/children-resilience-family-court-review.pdf| vauthors = Pedro-Carroll J |title= Fostering children's resilience in the aftermath of divorce: The told of evidence based programs for children|journal= Family Court Review|volume=43|year=2005|pages=52–64|doi=10.1111/j.1744-1617.2005.00007.x }}

{{Main|Bullying and emotional intelligence#Resilience}}

Beyond preventing bullying, it is also important to consider interventions based on emotional intelligence when bullying occurs. Emotional intelligence may foster resilience in victims. When a person faces stress and adversity, especially of a repetitive nature, their ability to adapt is an important factor in whether they have a more positive or negative outcome.{{cite journal |vauthors=Monroy Cortés BF, Palacios Cruz L |date=2011 |title=Resiliencia: ¿Es posible medirla e influir en ella? |url=https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=58220785008 |journal=Salud Mental |language=es-MX |location=México|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Psiquiátrica Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=237–246}}

One study examining adolescents who illustrated resilience to bullying found higher behavioral resilience in girls and higher emotional resilience in boys. The study's authors suggested the targeting of psychosocial skills as a form of intervention.{{cite journal |vauthors=Sapouna M, Wolke D |date=November 2013 |title=Resilience to bullying victimization: the role of individual, family and peer characteristics |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=997–1006 |doi=10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.05.009 |pmid=23809169}} Emotional intelligence promotes resilience to stress{{Cite journal |vauthors=Schneider TR, Lyons JB, Khazon S |year=2013 |title=Emotional intelligence and resilience |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=55 |issue=8 |pages=909–914 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.460}} and the ability to manage stress and other negative emotions can restrain a victim from going on to perpetuate aggression.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Polan J, Sieving R, Pettingell S, Bearinger L, McMorris B |year=2012 |title=142. Relationships Between Adolescent Girls' Social-Emotional Intelligence and Their Involvement in Relational Aggression and Physical Fighting |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=S81–S82 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.10.216}} Emotion regulation is an important factor in resilience. Emotional perception significantly facilitates lower negative emotionality during stress, while emotional understanding facilitates resilience and correlates with positive affect.

Resilience after a natural disaster can be gauged on an individual level (each person in the community), a community level (everyone collectively in the affected locality), and on a physical level (the locality's environment and infrastructure).{{cite journal | vauthors = Frankenberg E, Sikoki B, Sumantri C, Suriastini W, Thomas D | title = Education, Vulnerability, and Resilience after a Natural Disaster | journal = Ecology and Society | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 16 | year = 2013 | pmid = 25170339 | pmc = 4144011 | doi = 10.5751/ES-05377-180216 }}

UNESCAP-funded research on how communities show resiliency in the wake of natural disasters found that communities were more physically resilient if community members banded together and made resiliency a collective effort.{{cite journal|title= Building Resilience to Natural Disasters and Major Economic Crises|journal= Un Escap |url= http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/ThemeStudy2013-full2.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422232851/http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/ThemeStudy2013-full2.pdf|archive-date=2014-04-22}} Social support, especially the ability to pool resources, is key to resilience. Communities that pooled social, natural, and economic resources were more resilient and could overcome disasters more quickly than communities that took a more individualistic approach.

The World Economic Forum met in 2014 to discuss resiliency after natural disasters. They concluded that countries that are more economically sound{{definition|date=September 2023}}, and whose members can diversify their livelihoods, show higher levels of resiliency.{{cite journal|title= Building Resilience to Natural Disasters|journal=The World Economic Forum |url= http://www.weforum.org/sessions/summary/building-resilience-natural-disasters-0|archive-url= https://archive.today/20140421042923/http://www.weforum.org/sessions/summary/building-resilience-natural-disasters-0|archive-date= April 21, 2014|url-status=dead}} {{As of|2014}} this had not been studied in depth, but the ideas discussed in this forum appeared fairly consistent with existing research.

Individual resilience in the wake of natural disasters can be predicted by the level of emotion the person experienced and was able to process during and following the disaster. Those who employ emotional styles of coping were able to grow from their experiences and to help others. In these instances, experiencing emotions was adaptive. Those who did not engage with their emotions and who employed avoidant and suppressive coping styles had poorer mental health outcomes following disaster.{{cite report | vauthors = Kieft J, Bendell J | year = 2021 | title = The responsibility of communicating difficult truths about climate influenced societal disruption and collapse: an introduction to psychological research. | work = Institute for Leadership and Sustainability (IFLAS) Occasional Papers | volume = 7 | publisher = University of Cumbria | location = Ambleside, UK | url = https://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/5950/ }}

{{As of|2006}} little research had been done on the topic of family resilience in the wake of the death of a family member.{{cite book| veditors = Rynearson EK |title=Violent Death: Resilience and Intervention Beyond the Crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoRCPUeylLYC&pg=PP1|url-access=limited|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-92633-5}} Clinical attention to bereavement has focused on the individual mourning process rather than on the family unit as a whole. Resiliency in this context is the "ability to maintain a stable equilibrium" that is conducive to balance, harmony, and recovery.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonanno GA | title = Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–28 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14736317 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20 | s2cid = 6296189 | author1-link = George Bonanno }} Families manage familial distortions caused by the death of the family member by reorganizing relationships and changing patterns of functioning to adapt to their new situation.{{Cite journal|vauthors= Human B, Greeff AP |title=Resilience in families in which a parent has died|journal=The American Journal of Family Therapy |volume=32 |pages=27–42 |doi=10.1080/01926180490255765 |year=2004 |hdl=10019.1/52434 |s2cid=145540587 |url= https://scholar.sun.ac.za:443/bitstream/10019.1/52434/1/human_resilience_2001.pdf |hdl-access=free}} People who exhibiting resilience in the wake of trauma can successfully traverse the bereavement process without long-term negative consequences.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cooley E, Toray T, Roscoe L | title = Reactions to Loss Scale: assessing grief in college students | journal = Omega | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 25–51 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20533647 | doi = 10.2190/OM.61.1.b | s2cid = 31782621 }}

One of the healthiest behaviors displayed by resilient families in the wake of a death is honest and open communication. This facilitates an understanding of the crisis. Sharing the experience of the death can promote immediate and long-term adaptation. Empathy is a crucial component in familial resilience because it allows mourners to understand other positions, tolerate conflict, and grapple with differences that may arise. Another crucial component to resilience is the maintenance of a routine that binds the family together through regular contact and order. The continuation of education and a connection with peers and teachers at school is an important support for children struggling with the death of a family member.{{Cite journal|title=Therapeutic Interventions to Strengthen Resilience in Vulnerable Children|journal=School Psychology International|volume=35|issue=3|pages=309–337|doi=10.1177/0143034314529912|year=2014| vauthors = Heath MA, Donald DR, Theron LC, Lyon RC |s2cid=57392624}}

Resilience{{Specify|reason=personal? corporate?|date=September 2023}} has been examined in the context of failure and setbacks in workplace settings.{{Cite journal| vauthors = Linnenluecke MK |date=2017|title=Resilience in Business and Management Research: A Review of Influential Publications and a Research Agenda: Resilience in Business and Management Research|journal=International Journal of Management Reviews|volume=19|issue=1|pages=4–30|doi=10.1111/ijmr.12076|s2cid=145078741}}{{Cite journal | vauthors = Hartmann S, Weiss M, Newman A, Hoegl M |date=2019-02-27|title=Resilience in the Workplace:A Multilevel Review and Synthesis|journal=Applied Psychology|volume=69|issue=3|pages=913–959|doi=10.1111/apps.12191|s2cid=151262829}} Psychological resilience is one of the core constructs of positive organizational behavior{{cite journal|last=Luthans|first=F.|year=2002|title=The need for and meaning of positive organization behavior|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=23|number=6|pages=695–706|doi=10.1002/job.165|s2cid=45140677 |doi-access=free}} and has captured scholars' and practitioners' attention.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal| vauthors = Vegt GS, Essens P, Wahlström M, George G |author3-link=Margareta Wahlström |date=2015|title=Managing Risk and Resilience|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=58|issue=4|pages=971–980|doi=10.5465/amj.2015.4004|issn=0001-4273|url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/lkcsb_research/4744}}

|2={{Cite journal| vauthors = King DD, Newman A, Luthans F |author3-link=Fred Luthans|date=2016|title=Not if, but when we need resilience in the workplace: Workplace Resilience|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=37|issue=5|pages=782–786|doi=10.1002/job.2063}}

}} Research has highlighted certain personality traits, personal resources (e.g., self-efficacy, work-life balance, social competencies), personal attitudes (e.g., sense of purpose, job commitment), positive emotions, and work resources (e.g., social support, positive organizational context) as potential facilitators of workplace resilience.

Attention has also been directed to the role of resilience in innovative contexts. Due to high degrees of uncertainty and complexity in the innovation process,{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal| vauthors = Van de Ven AH, Polley D |author1-link=Andrew H. Van de Ven |date=1992|title=Learning While Innovating|journal=Organization Science|volume=3|issue=1|pages=92–116|doi=10.1287/orsc.3.1.92|issn=1047-7039}}

|2={{Cite journal| vauthors = Shepherd DA, Cardon MS |date=2009|title=Negative Emotional Reactions to Project Failure and the Self-Compassion to Learn from the Experience|journal=Journal of Management Studies|volume=46|issue=6|pages=923–949|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00821.x|s2cid=9341007}}

}} failure and setbacks happen frequently in this context.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Hu Y, McNamara P, Piaskowska D |year=2016|title=Project Suspensions and Failures in New Product Development: Returns for Entrepreneurial Firms in Co-Development Alliances|journal=Journal of Product Innovation Management|volume=34|issue=1|pages=35–59|doi=10.1111/jpim.12322|s2cid=54934364 |url=https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/78953/7/WRAP_0770086-wbs-130516-final_submission_wrap.pdf}} These can harm affected individuals' motivation and willingness to take risks, so their resilience is essential for them to productively engage in future innovative activities. A resilience construct specifically aligned to the peculiarities of the innovation context was needed to diagnose and develop innovators' resilience: Innovator Resilience Potential (IRP).{{Cite journal| vauthors = Moenkemeyer G, Hoegl M, Weiss M |date=2012|title=Innovator resilience potential: A process perspective of individual resilience as influenced by innovation project termination|journal=Human Relations|volume=65|issue=5|pages=627–655|doi=10.1177/0018726711431350|s2cid=145054433|issn=0018-7267|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15491/1/innovator_resilience.pdf}} Based on Bandura's social cognitive theory,{{Cite book|title=Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory| vauthors = Bandura A |author-link=Albert Bandura|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1986|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.}} IRP has six components: self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, optimism, hope, self-esteem, and risk propensity. It reflects a process perspective on resilience: IRP can be interpreted either as an antecedent of how a setback affects an innovator, or as an outcome of the process that is influenced by the setback situation. A measurement scale of IRP was developed and validated in 2018.{{Cite journal| vauthors = Todt G, Weiss M, Hoegl M |date=2018|title=Mitigating Negative Side Effects of Innovation Project Terminations: The Role of Resilience and Social Support|journal=Journal of Product Innovation Management|volume=35|issue=4|pages=518–542|doi=10.1111/jpim.12426}}

There is controversy about the indicators of good psychological and social development when resilience is studied across different cultures and contexts.{{multiref2

|1={{cite book | vauthors = Boyden J, Mann G | date = 2005 | chapter = Children's risk, resilience, and coping in extreme situations | pages = 3–26 | veditors = Ungar M | title = Handbook for working with children and youth: Pathways to resilience across cultures and contexts | location = Thousand Oaks, Calif. | publisher = Sage | isbn = 978-1-4129-0405-6 }}

|2={{cite book | vauthors = Castro FG, Murray KE | date = 2010 | chapter = Cultural adaptation and resilience: Controversies, issues, and emerging models | pages = 375–403 | veditors = Reich JW, Zautra AJ, Hall JS | title = Handbook of adult resilience | location = New York: Guilford Press | isbn = 978-1-4625-0647-7 }}

|3={{cite book | vauthors = Dawes A, Donald D | date = 2000 | chapter = Improving children's chances: Developmental theory and effective interventions in community contexts | pages = 1–25 | veditors = Donald D, Dawes A, Louw J | title = Addressing childhood adversity | location = Cape Town, S.A. | publisher = David Philip | isbn = 978-0-86486-449-9}}

}} The American Psychological Association's Task Force on Resilience and Strength in Black Children and Adolescents,{{cite report | publisher = American Psychological Association | author = Task Force on Resilience and Strength in Black Children and Adolescents | date = 2008 | title = Resilience in African American children and adolescents: A vision for optimal development | location = Washington, D.C. }} {{page needed|date=August 2019}} for example, notes that there may be special skills that these young people and families have that help them cope, including the ability to resist racial prejudice.{{cite web|vauthors=Sutton J|date=3 January 2019|title=What is Resilience and Why is it Important to Bounce Back?|url=https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/what-is-resilience/|access-date=3 February 2019|website=PositivePsychology}} Researchers of indigenous health have shown the impact of culture, history, community values, and geographical settings on resilience in indigenous communities.{{cite web | url = http://akneahr.ciet.org/publications/resilience/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426040749/http://akneahr.ciet.org/publications/resilience/|archive-date=2012-04-26 | title = Building resilience in Aboriginal communities | work = Anisnabe Kekendazone Network Environment for Aboriginal Health Research }} People who cope may also show "hidden resilience"{{cite book | vauthors = Ungar M | date = 2004 | title = Nurturing hidden resilience in troubled youth | location= Toronto | publisher = University of Toronto Press | isbn = 978-0-8020-8565-8 }} {{page needed|date=August 2019}} when they do not conform with society's expectations for how someone is supposed to behave (for example, in some contexts aggression may aid resilience, or less emotional engagement may be protective in situations of abuse).{{cite journal | vauthors = Obradović J, Bush NR, Stamperdahl J, Adler NE, Boyce WT | title = Biological sensitivity to context: the interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness | journal = Child Development | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 270–289 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20331667 | pmc = 2846098 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01394.x | author1-link = Jelena Obradovic }}

Individualist cultures, such as those of the U.S., Austria, Spain, and Canada, emphasize personal goals, initiatives, and achievements. Independence, self-reliance, and individual rights are highly valued by members of individualistic cultures. The ideal person in individualist societies is assertive, strong, and innovative. People in this culture tend to describe themselves in terms of their unique traits—"I am analytical and curious".Ma et al. 2004{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}} Economic, political, and social policies reflect the culture's interest in individualism.

Collectivist cultures, such as those of Japan, Sweden, Turkey, and Guatemala, emphasize family and group work goals. The rules of these societies promote unity, brotherhood, and selflessness. Families and communities practice cohesion and cooperation. The ideal person in collectivist societies is trustworthy, honest, sensitive, and generous—emphasizing intrapersonal skills. Collectivists tend to describe themselves in terms of their roles—"I am a good husband and a loyal friend".{{r|Ma2004}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}

In a study on the consequences of disaster on a culture's individualism, researchers operationalized these cultures by identifying indicative phrases in a society's literature. Words that showed the theme of individualism include, "able, achieve, differ, own, personal, prefer, and special." Words that indicated collectivism include, "belong, duty, give, harmony, obey, share, together."

Natural disasters threaten to destroy communities, displace families, degrade cultural integrity, and diminish an individual's level of functioning. Comparing individualist community reactions to collectivist community responses after natural disasters illustrates their differences and respective strengths as tools of resilience.

Some suggest that because disasters strengthen the need to rely on other people and social structures, they reduce individual agency and the sense of autonomy, and so regions with heightened exposure to disaster should cultivate collectivism. However, interviews with and experiments on disaster survivors indicate that disaster-induced anxiety and stress decrease one's focus on social-contextual information—a key component of collectivism. So disasters may increase individualism.{{multiref2|1={{cite journal|last=Withey|first=Stephen B|name-list-style=vanc|title=Reaction to uncertain threat|journal=Man and Society in Disaster|year=1962|pages=93–123}}

|2={{cite journal|last=Wachtel|first=P. L.|name-list-style=vanc|year=1968|title=Anxiety, Attention, and Coping with Threat|journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology|volume=73|number=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1037/h0020118|pmid=5649171 }}

}}

In a study into the association between socio-ecological indicators and cultural-level change in individualism, for each socio-ecological indicator, frequency of disasters was associated with greater (rather than less) individualism. Supplementary analyses indicated that the frequency of disasters was more strongly correlated with individualism-related shifts than was the magnitude of disasters or the frequency of disasters qualified by the number of deaths.{{citation|last1=Mauch|first1=Christof|last2=Pfister|first2=Christian|name-list-style=vanc|year=2004}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}

Baby-naming is one indicator of change. Urbanization was linked to preference for uniqueness in baby-naming practices at a one-year lag, secularism was linked to individualist shifts in interpersonal structure at both{{Specify|reason=|date=September 2023}} lags, and disaster prevalence was linked to more unique naming practices at both{{Specify|reason=|date=September 2023}} lags.{{r|MauchPfister2004}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}} Secularism and disaster prevalence contributed {{Vague|reason=this was their main contribution, or among variables studied these were the ones that showed the most contribution, or something else?|text=mainly|date=September 2023}} to shifts in naming practices.

Disaster recovery research focuses on psychology and social systems but does not adequately address interpersonal networking or relationship formation and maintenance. One disaster response theory holds that people who use existing communication networks fare better during and after disasters. Moreover, they can play important roles in disaster recovery by organizing and helping others use communication networks and by coordinating with institutions.

Building strong, self-reliant communities whose members know each other, know each other's needs, and are aware of existing communication networks, is a possible source of resilience in disasters.

Individualist societies promote individual responsibility for self-sufficiency; collectivist culture defines self-sufficiency within an interdependent communal context.{{cite journal|first1=Karen|last1=Kayser|first2=Leslie|last2=Wind|first3=R. Ashok|last3=Shankar|name-list-style=vanc|year=2008|title=Disaster Relief Within a Collectivistic Context|journal=Journal of Social Service Research|volume=34|number=3|pages=87–98|doi=10.1080/01488370802086526|s2cid=143220837 }} Even where individualism is salient, a group thrives when its members choose social over personal goals and seek to maintain harmony, and where they value collectivist over individualist behavior.{{cite journal|last1=McAuliffe|first1=B. J.|last2=Jetten|first2=J.|last3=Hornsey|first3=M. J.|last4=Hogg|first4=M. A.|name-list-style=vanc|year=2003|title=Individualist and collectivist norms: When it's ok to go your own way|journal=European Journal of Social Psychology|volume=33|pages=57–70|doi=10.1002/ejsp.129 }}

While not all languages have a direct translation for the English word "resilience", nearly every culture has a word that relates to a similar concept, suggesting a common understanding of what resilience is. Even if a word does not directly translate to "resilience" in English, it relays a meaning similar enough to the concept and is used as such within the language.

If a specific word for resilience does not exist in a language, speakers of that language typically assign a similar word that insinuates resilience based on context. Many languages use words that translate to "elasticity" or "bounce", which are used in context to capture the meaning of resilience. For example, one of the main words for "resilience" in Chinese literally translates to "rebound", one of the main words for "resilience" in Greek translates to "bounce" (another translates to "cheerfulness"), and one of the main words for "resilience" in Russian translates to "elasticity," just as it does in German. However, this is not the case for all languages. For example, if a Spanish speaker wanted to say "resilience", their main two options translate to "resistance" and "defense against adversity".{{Cite book|title=A Charge Against Society: The Child's Right to Protection| vauthors = Grotberg E |publisher=London and Bristol|year=1997|page=26}} Many languages have words that translate better to "tenacity" or "grit" better than they do to "resilience". While these languages may not have a word that exactly translates to "resilience", English speakers often use the words tenacity or grit when referring to resilience. Arabic has a word solely for resilience, but also two other common expressions to relay the concept, which directly translate to "capacity on deflation" or "reactivity of the body", but are better translated as "impact strength" and "resilience of the body" respectively. A few languages, such as Finnish, have words that express resilience in a way that cannot be translated back to English. In Finnish, the word and concept "{{lang|fi|sisu}}" has been recently studied by a designated Sisu Scale, which is composed of both beneficial and harmful sides of {{lang|fi|sisu}}.{{Cite journal |last1=Henttonen |first1=Pentti |last2=Määttänen |first2=Ilmari |last3=Makkonen |first3=Emilia |last4=Honka |first4=Anita |last5=Seppälä |first5=Vilja |last6=Närväinen |first6=Johanna |last7=García-Velázquez |first7=Regina |last8=Airaksinen |first8=Jaakko |last9=Jokela |first9=Markus |last10=Lahti |first10=Emilia Elisabet|name-list-style=vanc |date=2022-11-01 |title=A measure for assessment of beneficial and harmful fortitude: development and initial validation of the Sisu Scale |journal=Heliyon |language=English |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e11483 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11483 |doi-access=free |issn=2405-8440 |pmc=9667267 |pmid=36406727|bibcode=2022Heliy...811483H }} {{lang|fi|Sisu}}, measured by the Sisu Scale, has correlations with English langugage equivalents, but the harmful side of {{lang|fi|sisu}} does not seem to have any corresponding concept in English-language-based scales. Sometimes {{lang|fi|sisu}} has been translated to "grit" in English; {{lang|fi|sisu}} blends the concepts of resilience, tenacity, determination, perseverance, and courage into one word that has become a facet of Finnish culture.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/27/10-of-the-best-words-in-the-world-that-dont-translate-into-english|title=10 of the best words in the world (that don't translate into English) |date=2018-07-27|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-18|issn=0261-3077}}

Resilience is measured by evaluating personal qualities that reflect people's approach and response to negative experiences. Trait resilience is typically assessed using two methods: direct evaluation of traits through resilience measures, and proxy assessment of resilience, in which related psychological constructs are used to explain resilient outcomes.

There are more than 30 resilience measures that assess over 50 different variables related to resilience, but there is no universally accepted "gold standard" for measuring resilience.{{cite journal |vauthors=Pangallo A, Zibarras L, Lewis R, Flaxman P |date=March 2015 |title=Resilience through the lens of interactionism: a systematic review |url=https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/4810/1/Pangallo%20et%20al%20%20%28in%20press%29.pdf |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1037/pas0000024 |pmid=25222438 |s2cid=12582767}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Windle G, Bennett KM, Noyes J |date=February 2011 |title=A methodological review of resilience measurement scales |journal=Health and Quality of Life Outcomes |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=8 |doi=10.1186/1477-7525-9-8 |pmc=3042897 |pmid=21294858 |doi-access=free }}

Five of the established self-report measures of psychological resilience are:

; Ego Resiliency Scale{{cite journal |vauthors=Block J, Kremen AM |date=February 1996 |title=IQ and ego-resiliency: conceptual and empirical connections and separateness |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=349–361 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.349 |pmid=8636887}} : measures a person's ability to exercise control over their impulses or inhibition in response to environmental demands, with the aim of maintaining or enhancing their ego equilibrium.

; Hardiness Scale{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bartone PT, Ursano MD, Wright KM, Ingraham LH |date=1989 |title=The impact of a military EEA disaster on the health of assistance workers |url=https://www.hardiness-resilience.com/docs/milairdisaster.pdf|journal=Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |volume=177 |issue=6 |pages=317–328 |doi=10.1097/00005053-198906000-00001 |pmid=2723619 |s2cid=25271993}} : encompasses three main dimensions: (1) commitment (a conviction that life has purpose), (2) control (confidence in one's ability to navigate life), and (3) challenge (aptitude for and pleasure in adapting to change)

; Psychological Resilience Scale{{cite journal |vauthors=Wagnild G |date=August 2009 |title=A review of the Resilience Scale |journal=Journal of Nursing Measurement |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=105–113 |doi=10.1891/1061-3749.17.2.105 |pmid=19711709 |s2cid=20778519}} : assesses a "resilience core" characterized by five traits (purposeful life, perseverance, self-reliance, equanimity, and existential aloneness) that reflect an individual's physical and mental resilience throughout their lifespan

; Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale{{cite journal |vauthors=Connor KM, Davidson JR |date=September 2003 |title=Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) |journal=Depression and Anxiety |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=76–82 |doi=10.1002/da.10113 |pmid=12964174 |s2cid=14347861|doi-access=free }} : developed in a clinical treatment setting that conceptualized resilience as arising from four factors: {{clarify|reason=that's either one factor or three factors|text=(1) control, commitment, and change hardiness constructs|date=September 2023}}

; Brief Resilience Scale{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith BW, Dalen J, Wiggins K, Tooley E, Christopher P, Bernard J |date=2008-09-01 |title=The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=194–200 |doi=10.1080/10705500802222972 |pmid=18696313 |s2cid=1192402}} : assesses resilience as the capacity to bounce back from unfavorable circumstances

The Resilience Systems Scales was produced to investigate and measure the underlying structure of the 115 items from these five most-commonly cited trait resilience scales in the literature.{{cite journal |vauthors=Maltby J, Day L, Flowe HD, Vostanis P, Chivers S |date=2019-01-02 |title=Psychological Trait Resilience Within Ecological Systems Theory: The Resilient Systems Scales |url=https://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/42509325/Flowe_Psychological_trait_resilience_Journal_Personality_Assessment_2017.pdf|journal=Journal of Personality Assessment |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=44–53 |doi=10.1080/00223891.2017.1344985 |pmid=28708004 |s2cid=45164978}} Three strong latent factors account for most of the variance accounted for by the five most popular resilience scales, and replicated ecological systems theory:{{Cite journal |vauthors=Holling CS |date=September 1973 |title=Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems |url=https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/26/1/RP-73-003.pdf |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245 |bibcode=1973AnRES...4....1H |issn=0066-4162 |s2cid=53309505}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B |date=August 2002 |title=Resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations |journal=Ambio |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=437–440 |doi=10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.437 |pmid=12374053 |bibcode=2002Ambio..31..437F |s2cid=1940666}}

; Engineering resilience : The capability of a system to quickly and effortlessly restore itself to a stable equilibrium state after a disruption, as measured by its speed and ease of recovery.

; Ecological resilience : The capacity of a system to endure or resist disruptions while preserving a steady state and adapting to necessary changes in its functioning.

; Adaptive capacity : The ability to continuously adjust functions and processes in order to be ready to adapt to any disruption.

Resilience literature identifies five main trait domains that serve as stress-buffers and can be used as proxies to describe resilience outcomes:

; personality : A resilient personality includes positive expressions of the five-factor personality traits such as high emotional stability, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness.{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal |vauthors=Asendorpf JB, van Aken MA |date=October 1999 |title=Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality prototypes in childhood: replicability, predictive power, and the trait-type issue |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=815–832 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.815 |pmid=10531673}}

|2={{cite journal |vauthors=Robins RW, John OP, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Stouthamer-Loeber M |date=January 1996 |title=Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled boys: three replicable personality types |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=157–171 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.70.1.157 |pmid=8558407}}

}}

; cognitive abilities and executive functions : Resilience is identified through effective use of executive functions and processing of experiential demands,{{cite book |title=Developmental Psychopathology |vauthors=Cicchetti D, Curtis WJ |date=2015-09-06 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-0-470-93939-0 |location=Hoboken, N.J., USA |pages=1–64 |chapter=The Developing Brain and Neural Plasticity: Implications for Normality, Psychopathology, and Resilience |doi=10.1002/9780470939390.ch1}} or through an overarching cognitive mapping system that integrates information from current situations, prior experience, and goal-driven processes.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Parsons S, Kruijt AW, Fox E |date=November 2016 |title=A Cognitive Model of Psychological Resilience |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychopathology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=296–310 |doi=10.5127/jep.053415 |issn=2043-8087 |s2cid=148059000|doi-access=free }}

; affective systems, which include emotional regulation systems : Emotion regulation systems are based on the broaden-and-build theory, in which there is {{clarify|reason=too many clauses, unclear how they are supposed to relate; how would you diagram this sentence?|text=a reciprocal relationship between trait resilience and positive emotional functioning through emotional management, coping, and regulation achieved by means of attention control, cognitive reappraisal, and coping strategies|date=September 2023}}.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal |vauthors=Kay SA |date=June 2016 |title=Emotion Regulation and Resilience: Overlooked Connections |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1754942616000316/type/journal_article|url-access=subscription |journal=Industrial and Organizational Psychology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=411–415 |doi=10.1017/iop.2016.31 |issn=1754-9426 |s2cid=147980270}}

|2={{Citation |title=Resilience in the face of stress: emotion regulation as a protective factor |date=2011-08-18 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9780511994791A013/type/book_part|url-access=subscription |work=Resilience and Mental Health |pages=30–44 |access-date=2023-04-22 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511994791.004 |isbn=978-0-521-89839-3 |vauthors=Troy AS, Mauss IB |veditors=Southwick SM, Litz BT, Charney D, Friedman MJ}} }}

; eudaimonic well-being : resilience emerges from natural well-being processes (e.g. autonomy, purpose in life, environmental mastery) and underlying genetic and neural substrates and acts as a protective resilient factor across life-span transitions.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ryff CD |date=2014 |title=Psychological well-being revisited: advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia |journal=Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=10–28 |doi=10.1159/000353263 |pmc=4241300 |pmid=24281296}}

; health systems : This also reflects the broaden-and-build theory, where there is a reciprocal relationship between trait resilience and positive health functioning through the promotion of feeling capable to deal with adverse health situations.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Rossouw JG, Rossouw PJ, Paynter C, Ward A, Khnana P |year=2017 |title=Predictive 6 Factor Resilience Scale – Domains of Resilience and Their Role as Enablers of Job Satisfaction |journal=International Journal of Neuropsychotherapy |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.12744/ijnpt.2017.1.0025-0040 |issn=2202-7653}}

A mixed model of resilience can be derived from direct and proxy measures of resilience. A search for latent factors among 61 direct and proxy resilience assessments, suggested four main factors:

; recovery : Resilience scales that focus on recovery, such as engineering resilience, align with reports of stability in emotional and health systems. The most fitting theoretical framework for this is the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. This theory highlights how positive emotions can foster resilient health systems and enable individuals to recover from setbacks.

; sustainability : Resilience scales that reflect "sustainability," such as engineering resilience, align with conscientiousness, lower levels of dysexecutive functioning, and five dimensions of eudaimonic well-being. Theoretically, resilience is the effective use of executive functions and processing of experiential demands (also known as resilient functioning), where an overarching cognitive mapping system integrates information from current situations, prior experience, and goal-driven processes (known as the cognitive model of resilience).

; adaptability resilience : Resilience scales that assess adaptability, such as adaptive capacity, are associated with higher levels of extraversion (such as being enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious) and openness-to-experience (such as being intellectually curious, creative, and imaginative). These personality factors are often reported to form a higher-order factor known as "beta"{{cite journal |vauthors=Digman JM |date=December 1997 |title=Higher-order factors of the Big Five |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=73 |issue=6 |pages=1246–1256 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1246 |pmid=9418278}} or "plasticity",{{Cite journal |vauthors=DeYoung CG, Peterson JB, Higgins DM |date=September 2002 |title=Higher-order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886901001714|url-access=subscription |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |language=en |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=533–552 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00171-4 |issn=0191-8869}} which reflects a drive for growth, agency, and reduced inhibition by preferring new and diverse experiences while reducing fixed patterns of behavior. These findings suggest that adaptability can be seen as a complement to growth, agency, and reduced inhibition.

; social cohesion : Several resilience measures converge to suggest an underlying social cohesion factor, in which social support, care, and cohesion among family and friends (as featured in various scales within the literature) form a single latent factor.

These findings point to the possibility of adopting a "mixed model" of resilience in which direct assessments of resilience could be employed alongside cognate psychological measures to improve the evaluation of resilience.

As with other psychological phenomena, there is controversy about how resilience should be defined. Its definition affects research focuses; differing or imprecise definitions lead to inconsistent research. Research on resilience has become more heterogeneous in its outcomes and measures, convincing some researchers to abandon the term altogether due to it being attributed to all outcomes of research where results were more positive than expected.{{cite journal |vauthors=Burt KB, Paysnick AA |date=May 2012 |title=Resilience in the transition to adulthood |journal=Development and Psychopathology |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=493–505 |doi=10.1017/S0954579412000119 |pmid=22559126 |s2cid=13638544}}

There is also disagreement among researchers as to whether psychological resilience is a character trait or state of being.{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Ye ZJ, Zhang Z, Zhang XY, Tang Y, Chen P, Liang MZ, Sun Z, Yu YL |date=February 2020 |title=State or trait? Measuring resilience by generalisability theory in breast cancer |journal=European Journal of Oncology Nursing |volume=46 |pages=101727 |doi=10.1016/j.ejon.2020.101727 |pmid=32339909 |s2cid=213249920}} Psychological resilience has also been referred to {{clarify|reason=unclear jargon|text=as ecological concept, ranging from micro to macro levels of interpretation|date=September 2023}}.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Nuttman-Shwartz O, Green O |date=2021 |title=Resilience truths: Trauma resilience workers' points of view toward resilience in continuous traumatic situations |journal=International Journal of Stress Management |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1037/str0000223 |issn=1573-3424 |s2cid=234034157}}

However, it is generally agreed upon that resilience is a buildable resource. There is also evidence that resilience can indicate a capacity {{clarify|reason=unclear|text=to resist a sharp decline in other harm even though a person temporarily appears to get worse|date=September 2023}}.{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal |vauthors=Ungar M |year=2004 |title=A constructionist discourse on resilience: Multiple contexts, multiple realities among at-risk children and youth |journal=Youth & Society |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=341–365 |doi=10.1177/0044118X03257030 |s2cid=145514574}}

|2={{cite book |title=Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resiliency, and recovery |vauthors=Werner EE, Smith RS |date=2001 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-8738-5 |location=Ithaca, N.Y.}} {{page needed|date=August 2019}}

}} Adolescents who have a high level of adaptation (i.e. resilience) tend to struggle with dealing with other psychological problems later on in life. This is due to an overload of their stress response systems. There is evidence that the higher one's resilience is, the lower one's vulnerability.{{clarify|reason=the last sentence seems to contradict the preceding two|date=September 2023}}{{cite book |title=Leadership Resilience in a Digital Age |vauthors=Young J |date=2021-08-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-367-28097-0 |place=London |pages=107–124 |chapter=Dark Side to Light |doi=10.4324/9780367280970-9 |s2cid=238719370}}

Brad Evans and Julian Reid criticize resilience discourse and its rising popularity in their book, Resilient Life.{{cite book| vauthors = Evans B, Reid J |title=Resilient Life: The Art of Living Dangerously|date=2014|publisher=Polity Press|location=Malden, Mass.|isbn=978-0-7456-7152-9}}{{page needed|date=August 2019}} The authors assert that {{clarify|reason=what are those?|text=policies of resilience|date=September 2023}} can put the onus of disaster response on individuals rather than publicly coordinated efforts. Tied to the emergence of neoliberalism, climate change, third-world development, and other discourses, Evans and Reid argue that promoting resilience draws attention away from governmental responsibility and towards self-responsibility and healthy psychological effects such as post-traumatic growth.

{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|

• Adaptive performance
• Differential susceptibility hypothesis
• Hardiness (psychology)
• Health realization
• Mental toughness
• Neuroplasticity
• Salutogenesis
• Scale of Protective Factors (SPF)
• Self (psychology)
• Stress management

}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|40em}}

• {{cite book | vauthors = Benard B | date = 2004 | title = Resiliency: What we have learned. | location = San Francisco | publisher = WestEd }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Bronfenbrenner U | date = 1979 | title = Ecology of human development | location = Cambridge, Mass. | publisher = Harvard University Press }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Comoretto A, Crichton N, Albery IP | date = 2011 | title = Resilience in humanitarian aid workers: understanding processes of development | publisher = LAP: Lambert Academic Publishing }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Gonzales L | date = 2012 | title = Surviving Survival: The Art and Science of Resilience. | location = New York | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company }}
• {{cite journal | doi = 10.1177/0095327X14536709 | volume=41 | title=I Don't Think I Would Have Recovered | year=2014 | journal=Armed Forces & Society | pages=496–518 | vauthors = Marcellino WM, Tortorello F | issue=3 | s2cid=146845944 }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Masten AS | title = Resilience in developing systems: progress and promise as the fourth wave rises | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 921–930 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17705908 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579407000442 | s2cid = 31526466 }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Masten AS | date = 1999 | chapter = Resilience comes of age: Reflections on the past and outlook for the next generation of research | veditors = Glantz MD, Johnson JL | title = Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations | pages = 281–296 | location = New York | publisher = Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Reivich K, Shatte A | date = 2002 | title = The Resilience Factor: 7 Keys to Finding Your Inner Strength and Overcoming Life's Hurdles | location = New York | publisher = Broadway }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Rutter M | title = Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms | journal = The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry | volume = 57 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–331 | date = July 1987 | pmid = 3303954 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03541.x }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Rutter M | date = 2000 | chapter = Resilience reconsidered: Conceptual considerations, empirical findings, and policy implications | veditors = Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ | title = Handbook of early childhood intervention | edition = 2nd | pages = 651–682 | location = New York| publisher = Cambridge University Press }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Southwick SM, Charnie DA | date = 2018 | title = Resilience: The Science of Mastering Life's Greatest Challenges | edition = Second | location = Cambridge|publisher= Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-1-108-44166-7 }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Ungar M | date = 2007 | chapter-url = http://www.cecw-cepb.ca/publications/1010 | chapter = Contextual and cultural aspects of resilience in child welfare settings | veditors = Brown I, Chaze F, Fuchs D, Lafrance J, McKay S, Prokop TS | title = Putting a human face on child welfare' | pages = 1–24 | location = Toronto | publisher = Centre of Excellence for Child Welfare }}

{{refend}}

{{wikiversity}}

• [https://www.nationalresilienceresource.com/ National Resilience Resource Center]
• [https://resilienceresearch.org/ Research on resilience] at Dalhousie University

{{Virtues}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Psychological Resilience}}

Category:Motivation

Category:Psychological adjustment

Category:Psychological theories

Category:Self-sustainability