racialization

The process of racialization can affect newly arriving immigrants as well as their second-generation children in the United States. According to sociologist Ali R. Chaudhary, the concept of racialized incorporation bridges the idea of assimilation with critical race studies in general and the concept of racialization in particular.{{Cite journal |title=Racialized Incorporation: The Effects of Race and Generational Status on Self-Employment and Industry-Sector Prestige in the United States |journal=International Migration Review |date=1 June 2015 |issn=1747-7379 |pages=318–354 |volume=49 |issue=2 |doi=10.1111/imre.12087 |language=en |first=Ali R. |last=Chaudhary |s2cid=145352741}} While immigrants may possess specific ethnic and cultural identities associated with their countries of origin, once they arrive in the U.S., they are incorporated into a society that is largely organized along the lines of race.{{cn|date=September 2024}} The racial hierarchy in the United States is pervasive in many aspects of life, including housing, education, and employment.{{cn|date=September 2024}} The racialized incorporation perspective argues that regardless of the ethnic and cultural differences across immigrant groups, racial identification is the ultimate and primary principle of social organization in the United States.{{cn|date=September 2024}} Because the lived experiences of Whites and Blacks in U.S. society diverge in most areas of social life,{{Fact or opinion|Is this a fact or opinion?|date=May 2025}} the racialized category that immigrants and their children are incorporated into will largely determine their experiences and opportunities in the United States. The process of racialization and involuntary incorporation is a topic of research interest in the United States.{{Cite web |title=The Process of "Racialization" |url=http://www.yorku.ca/lfoster/2006-07/sosi4440b/lectures/RACIALIZATION_THEPROCESSOFRACIALIZATION.html |access-date=30 June 2024 |website=York University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211223838/http://www.yorku.ca/lfoster/2006-07/sosi4440b/lectures/RACIALIZATION_THEPROCESSOFRACIALIZATION.html |archive-date=11 December 2023}}

Religious groups can also go through the process of racialization. Adherents of Judaism, Islam, and Sikhism can be racialized when they are portrayed as possessing certain physical characteristics, despite the fact that many individual adherents of those religions do not possess any of those physical characteristics.{{Efn|Although they accept converts, Jews are an ethnoreligious group, because they constitute an ethnicity as well as a religion. See racial antisemitism and religious antisemitism.}}{{Cite journal |last=Meer |first=Nasar |date=1 March 2013 |title=Racialization and religion: race, culture and difference in the study of antisemitism and Islamophobia |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=36 |number=3 |pages=385–398 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2013.734392 |s2cid=144942470 |issn=0141-9870}}{{Cite journal |last=Joshi |first=Khyati Y. |date=1 September 2006 |title=The Racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism in the United States |journal=Equity & Excellence in Education |volume=39 |number=3 |pages=211–226 |doi=10.1080/10665680600790327 |s2cid=145652861 |issn=1066-5684}}

Marta Maria Maldonado has identified the racialization of labor to involve the segregation and appointment of workers based on perceived ethnic differences.{{cite journal |first=Marta Maria |last=Maldonado |title='It is their nature to do menial labour': The racialization of 'Latino/A workers' by agricultural employers |quote='It is their nature to do menial labour': the racialization of 'Latino/a workers' by agricultural employers |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=32 |number=6 |date=July 2009 |page=1026 |doi=10.1080/01419870902802254 |s2cid=143635150}} This racialization of labor is said to produce a hierarchical arrangement which limits employee agency and mobility based on their race. The process of racialization is reinforced through presupposed, stereotypical qualities which are imposed upon the racialized person by the racializer.{{cite journal |first=Marta Maria |last=Maldonado |title=Racial Triangulation of Latino/a Workers by Agricultural Employers |journal=Human Organization |volume=65 |number=4 |date=Winter 2006 |page=360 |doi=10.17730/humo.65.4.a84b5xykr0dvp91l}}

Members of the dominant race in a society benefit from various privileges, such as white privilege in societies where people classified as white make up the dominant racial group, whether these are material or psychological, and are maintained and reproduced within social systems.{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Murga |first=Aurelia Lorena |date=2011 |title=The Racialization of Day Labor Work in the U.S. Labor Market: Examining the Exploitation of Immigrant Labor |publisher=Texas A&M University |hdl=1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2011-08-10032 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2011-08-10032}}{{cite journal |last=Hong |first=Gihoon |title=Examining the U.S. Labor Market Performance of Immigrant Workers in the Presence of Network Effects |journal=Journal of Labor Research |volume=36 |pages=9–26 |doi=10.1007/s12122-014-9191-7 |year=2015 |s2cid=153986808}}

Furthermore, research by Edna Bonacich, Sabrina Alimahomed Jake B. Wilson, 2008 regarding the effects of race and criminal background on employment concluded that "dominant racialized labor groups (mainly White/European workers) are in general afforded more privileges than subordinate racialized labor groups (workers of color)"{{cite journal |last1=Bonacich |first1=E. |last2=Alimahomed |first2=S. |last3=Wilson |first3=J. B. |title=The Racialization of Global Labor |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |volume=52 |number=3 |pages=342–355 |doi=10.1177/0002764208323510 |year=2008 |s2cid=144845816}} Additionally, According to Chetty, Hendren, Kline, and Saez, the effect of race segregation impacts the labor market, saying "upward income mobility is significantly lower in areas with larger African American Populations".

Racialization and gender can often intersect.{{Cite journal |title=The racialization of gender in the social construction of immigrant women in Canada: A case study of African women in a prairie province |journal=Canadian Woman Studies |volume=19 |number=3 |pages=38–44 |last=Elabor-Idemudia |first=P. |date=1999 |language=en}} Racialized gender-specific categories can emerge in the process of racialization.{{Cite thesis |title=Mental images and political stories: Tracing the implicit effects of race and gender rhetoric on public opinion| url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/128922 |last=Winter |first=Nicolas John Garret |date=2001 |language=en |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Michigan |hdl=2027.42/128922}} For example, an African woman who immigrates to the United States may be viewed through stereotypes pertaining to African-American women.{{Cite web |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/cared/racialization |title=Racialization: Framing and Learning Anti-Racism |last=Changnon-Greyeyes |first=C. |date=2018 |archive-date=25 March 2018 |website=University of Calgary |access-date=6 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325145235/http://www.ucalgary.ca/cared/racialization |url-status=dead}}

In Canadian politics, conservative representatives view the sociological concept as patchy. Maxime Bernier described it as "awful jargon" and argued that it contradicts the goal of creating a color-blind society. In response, liberal representatives contended that the realities of racism are more pervasive. They argued that "denying the very real experiences of people who live with racism every day" only supports the status quo and avoids the responsibility of actively working to eradicate racism.{{cite news |first=Peter |last=Zimonjic |date=28 May 2018 |title=Liberal MP calls Bernier's approach to systemic racism in Canada 'foolishness' |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/bernier-chavannes-racism-exchange-1.4681593 |work=CBC News |archive-url= |archive-date=}} In 2019, Hochman, a proponent of the theory of racialization, pointed out that the concept of racialization is often misidentified as relating to races or what constitutes a race, leading race-skeptic scholars in academia to discourage its use, while it actually pertains to how races are systemically and socially grouped for marginalization. Based on "what it does," the outcome of such marginalization is explained by systemic racism.{{Cite journal |last=Lentin |first=Alana |date=21 June 2015 |title=What does race do? |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01419870.2015.1016064 |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |language=en |volume=38 |issue=8 |page=1404 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2015.1016064 |issn=0141-9870|url-access=subscription }}

• Black Codes (United States)
• Critical race theory
• Postcolonialism
• Racialized society
• Scientific racism

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Category:Race and society