religious philosophy

Religious faith and philosophical reflection are connected to one another. Religious tradition influences the philosophical thinking and beliefs of followers of that religion.{{Cite journal|last=De Cruz|first=Helen|date=2014|title=Cognitive Science of Religion and the Study of Theological Concepts|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|journal=Topoi|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=487–497|doi=10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|s2cid=144668135|issn=0167-7411|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717154738/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|url-status=live}}

Many philosophical commonalities have arisen among religions due to their core historical foundations. For example, Abrahamic religions, which encompass Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Baha'i Faith, Yezidi, Druze, Samaritan, and Rastafari, share philosophical commonalities, although they differ in their presentation of these philosophical concepts through their respective religious texts.{{Cite journal|last=Vitkovic|first=Scott|title=The Similarities and Differences Between Abrahamic Religions|date=2018|journal=IJASOS- International e-Journal of Advances in Social Sciences|volume=4|issue=11|page=456|doi=10.18769/ijasos.455673|issn=2411-183X|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Kunst|first1=Jonas R.|last2=Thomsen|first2=Lotte|date=2015-10-02|title=Prodigal Sons: Dual Abrahamic Categorization Mediates the Detrimental Effects of Religious Fundamentalism on Christian–Muslim Relations|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10508619.2014.937965|journal=The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion|language=en|volume=25|issue=4|pages=293–306|doi=10.1080/10508619.2014.937965|issn=1050-8619|hdl=10852/43723|s2cid=53625066|hdl-access=free|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2020-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728143805/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10508619.2014.937965|url-status=live}}

There are also philosophical concepts and reasoning in religious teachings that were conceived independently from one another but are still similar and reflect analogous ideas.{{Cite journal|last=De Cruz|first=Helen|date=2014|title=Cognitive Science of Religion and the Study of Theological Concepts|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|journal=Topoi|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|page=491|doi=10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|s2cid=144668135|issn=0167-7411|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717154738/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|url-status=live}} For example, the arguments and reasoning for the existence of an omniscient god or multiple gods can be found in several religions, including Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. Another example includes the philosophical concept of free will, which is present in both monotheistic and polytheistic religions.

Many religious concepts are considered to be "cross-culturally ubiquitous" as they are "cognitively natural."{{Cite book|last=McCauley, Robert N.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/869781247|title=Why religion is natural and science is not|date=November 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-934154-2|location=Oxford, Oxfordshire|oclc=869781247}} They are deemed intuitive, meaning that they arise without much direction, instruction, or coaching in the early stages of our intellectual development{{Cite journal|last=De Cruz|first=Helen|date=2014|title=Cognitive Science of Religion and the Study of Theological Concepts|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|journal=Topoi|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|page=488|doi=10.1007/s11245-013-9168-9|s2cid=144668135|issn=0167-7411}} and do not necessarily originate from cultural influence.{{Cite journal|last=Sperber|first=Dan|date=2008-06-28|title=Intuitive and Reflective Beliefs|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1468-0017.1997.tb00062.x|journal=Mind & Language|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=67–83|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0017.1997.tb00062.x|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717154804/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0017.1997.tb00062.x|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Such religious concepts include beliefs concerning the "afterlife, souls, supernatural agents, and miraculous events."

Some religious concepts require deliberate teaching to ensure the transmission of their ideas and beliefs to others. These beliefs are categorised as reflective and are often stored in a linguistic format that allows for ease of transmission. Reflective philosophies are thought to contribute significantly to the continuation of cultural and religious beliefs.{{Cite journal|last=Sperber|first=Dan|date=2008-06-28|title=Intuitive and Reflective Beliefs|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1468-0017.1997.tb00062.x|journal=Mind & Language|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|page=83|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0017.1997.tb00062.x|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717154804/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0017.1997.tb00062.x|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Such religious philosophies include karma, divine immanent justice, or providence, and also encompass theological concepts such as Trinity in Christianity or Brahman in Hinduism.

Religious philosophy is predominantly concerned with the conceptions of god, gods, and/or the divine.

{{Main|Ontological argument}}

Ontological arguments are arguments based on reason with the conclusion that God exists.{{Cite web|last=Oppy|first=Graham|date=1996-02-08|title=Ontological Arguments|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ontological-arguments/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824203105/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ontological-arguments/|url-status=live}} There are many notable contributors to the development of various ontological arguments.

In the 11th century C.E., Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) reasoned in his work Proslogion about the existence of God in an ontological argument based on the idea that there is a 'being than which no greater can be conceived'.{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Thomas|date=2000-05-18|title=Saint Anselm|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/anselm/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008025051/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/anselm/|url-status=live}}

Thomas Aquinas ({{Circa|1225}}–1274) extracted components of philosophical teaching relevant to Christianity, using philosophy as a means to demonstrate God's existence.{{Cite web|title=Aquinas' Philosophical Theology {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://iep.utm.edu/aq-ph-th/|access-date=2020-11-20|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120071723/https://iep.utm.edu/aq-ph-th/|url-status=live}} In his work Summa Theologica, Aquinas presents five arguments for the existence of God, known as 'quinque viae' or 'five ways'.{{Cite web|last1=McInerny|first1=Ralph|last2=O'Callaghan|first2=John|date=1999-07-12|title=Saint Thomas Aquinas|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/aquinas/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2019-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527180840/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/aquinas/|url-status=live}}

File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg

In the 17th century, René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed similar arguments to those of Saint Anselm of Canterbury. For example, in his work Fifth Meditation, he provides an ontological argument based on the reasoning that if we are able to conceive the idea of a supremely perfect being (i.e., that we have an idea of a supremely perfect being), then, he claims, we are able to reach the conclusion that there exists a supremely perfect being.{{Cite web|last=Nolan|first=Lawrence|date=2001-06-18|title=Descartes' Ontological Argument|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/descartes-ontological/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2021-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711134317/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/descartes-ontological/|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal|last=Abbruzzese|first=John Edward|date=2007|title=The structure of Descartes's ontological proof|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09608780701255394|journal=British Journal for the History of Philosophy|language=en|volume=15|issue=2|pages=253–282|doi=10.1080/09608780701255394|s2cid=145725622|issn=0960-8788|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2023-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210022731/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09608780701255394|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last=Wee|first=Cecilia|date=2012|title=Descartes's Ontological Proof of God's Existence|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09608788.2011.650973|journal=British Journal for the History of Philosophy|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=23–40|doi=10.1080/09608788.2011.650973|s2cid=170398478|issn=0960-8788|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717160835/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09608788.2011.650973|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Two versions of Descartes' ontological argument exist:

• Version A:

1. Whatever I clearly and distinctly perceive to be contained in the idea of something is true of that thing.
2. I clearly and distinctly perceive that necessary existence is contained in the idea of God.
3. Therefore, God exists.

• Version B:

1. I have an idea of a supremely perfect being, i.e. a being having all perfections.
2. Necessary existence is perfection.
3. Therefore, a supremely perfect being exists.

In the 18th century, Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) further developed Descartes ontological argument by attempting to satisfy a shortcoming in Descartes' proposal, which did not address the coherence of a supremely perfect being. Leibniz reasoned that perfections are compatible as they are unable to be analysed, and therefore are able to exist in a single entity, thereby validating Descartes argument.

More recently, individuals such as Kurt Gödel, Charles Hartshorne, Norman Malcolm, and Alvin Plantinga have proposed ontological arguments, many of which elaborate on or are connected to older ontological arguments presented by individuals such as St. Anselm, Descartes, and Leibniz. For example, Kurt Godel (1905–1978) used modal logic to elaborate and clarify Leibniz's version of Saint Anselm of Canterbury's ontological proof of the existence of God, known as Godel's Ontological Proof.{{Cite web|last=Kennedy|first=Juliette|title=Kurt Gödel|date=2020|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/goedel/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Winter 2020|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2021-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230162936/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/goedel/|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Conceptions of God}}

An individual's perception of the concept of God influences their coping style.{{Cite journal|last1=Maynard|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Gorsuch|first2=Richard|last3=Bjorck|first3=Jeff|date=2001|title=Religious Coping Style, Concept of God, and Personal Religious Variables in Threat, Loss, and Challenge Situations|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0021-8294.00038|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|language=en|volume=40|issue=1|pages=65–74|doi=10.1111/0021-8294.00038|issn=0021-8294|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127174345/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0021-8294.00038|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} There are four main religiously affiliated coping mechanisms, as follows:

1. Self-directing style: the individual does not involve God directly and instead individually adopts a problem-solving method.{{Cite journal|last1=Pargament|first1=Kenneth I.|last2=Kennell|first2=Joseph|last3=Hathaway|first3=William|last4=Grevengoed|first4=Nancy|last5=Newman|first5=Jon|last6=Jones|first6=Wendy|date=1988|title=Religion and the Problem-Solving Process: Three Styles of Coping|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1387404|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|volume=27|issue=1|pages=90|doi=10.2307/1387404|jstor=1387404|access-date=2021-05-22|archive-date=2016-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007233703/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1387404|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}
2. Deferring style: the individual submits their issue and the required problem-solving to God.
3. Collaborative style: both the individual and God are involved in the problem-solving process.
4. Surrender style: the individual works collaboratively with God in the problem-solving process but values God's direction above their own.{{Cite journal|last1=Wong-Mcdonald|first1=Ana|last2=Gorsuch|first2=Richard L.|date=2000|title=Surrender to God: An Additional Coping Style?|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/009164710002800207|journal=Journal of Psychology and Theology|language=en|volume=28|issue=2|pages=149–161|doi=10.1177/009164710002800207|s2cid=149374402|issn=0091-6471|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205184238/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/009164710002800207|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

An individual's religious philosophy is important in the consideration of their medical care and medical decisions, and taking that into account improves the quality of their medical treatment. Particularly in the case of palliative care, understanding different religious philosophical foundations allows for the proper spiritual care to be obtained by the patient.{{Cite journal|last=Inbadas|first=Hamilton|date=2018-10-02|title=Indian philosophical foundations of spirituality at the end of life|url=|journal=Mortality|language=en|volume=23|issue=4|page=321|doi=10.1080/13576275.2017.1351936|issn=1357-6275|pmc=6157526|pmid=30294243}} Religious philosophy is also a necessary consideration in the psychotherapeutic treatment of psychiatric disorders.{{Cite journal|last1=Agorastos|first1=Agorastos|last2=Huber|first2=Christian G|last3=Demiralay|first3=Cueneyt|date=2014|title=Influence of religious aspects and personal beliefs on psychological behavior: focus on anxiety disorders|url=|journal=Psychology Research and Behavior Management|volume=7|language=en|page=98|doi=10.2147/PRBM.S43666|issn=1179-1578|pmc=3956626|pmid=24648780 |doi-access=free }} Consideration of organ donation post-death is related to an individual's religious philosophy.{{Cite journal|last1=Oliver|first1=M.|last2=Woywodt|first2=A.|last3=Ahmed|first3=A.|last4=Saif|first4=I.|date=2011-02-01|title=Organ donation, transplantation and religion|journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation|language=en|volume=26|issue=2|pages=437–444|doi=10.1093/ndt/gfq628|pmid=20961891|issn=0931-0509|doi-access=free}}

Many religions follow dietary habits. For example, a vegetarian diet is adhered to by individuals who follow Buddhism, Hinduism, Seventh-day Adventist.{{Cite journal|last=Sabaté|first=Joan|date=2004|title=Religion, diet and research|journal=British Journal of Nutrition|language=en|volume=92|issue=2|pages=199–201|doi=10.1079/BJN20041229|pmid=15333148|issn=0007-1145|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jo Ann|date=2007-01-01|title=World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet|url=https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/3|journal=Perspective Digest|volume=12|issue=1|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2021-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226191522/https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/3/|url-status=live}} The emphasis on sanctity of all life in the ethical doctrine known as ahimsa (non-injury to living beings) in Buddhist and Hindu philosophies encompass human as well as animal life, and influence this vegetarian tradition, with modern influence including the concept of reincarnation.

Fasting of various forms (exclusion of specific foods or food groups, or exclusion of food for certain periods of time) are undertaken by individuals who follow philosophies of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Eastern Orthodox, Islam, Roman Catholicism.

Some religions require for food to be invoked in God's name.{{Cite journal|last1=Regenstein|first1=J. M.|last2=Chaudry|first2=M. M.|last3=Regenstein|first3=C. E.|date=2003|title=The Kosher and Halal Food Laws|journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=111–127|doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2003.tb00018.x|pmid=33451233|issn=1541-4337|doi-access=free}} For example, in Islam, meat must be from properly slaughtered 'clean' animals, known as halal, although it is forbidden to consume scavenger animals. The religious philosophical purpose behind Islamic dietary laws derived from the commandments of Allah (Quran and Sunnah of Muhammad) is the concept of purity, where Muslims consume what is considered pure and clean to be pure both in a physical and spiritual sense.{{Cite journal|last1=Pakeeza|first1=Shahzadi|last2=Munir|first2=Mohsina|title=Dietary Laws of Islam and Judaism: A Comparative Study|journal=Al Adwa|volume=45|issue=31|pages=1–14}} Another example includes Jewish Kosher laws, where individuals must observe kosher food laws derived from Torah and Mishnah religious scripture texts.

{{Main|Euthanasia}}

Consideration of euthanasia is influenced by an individual's religious philosophy. Much of the opposition towards legislation of euthanasia is due to religious beliefs.{{Cite journal|last1=Danyliv|first1=Andriy|last2=O'Neill|first2=Ciaran|date=2015|title=Attitudes towards legalising physician provided euthanasia in Britain: The role of religion over time|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953614008387|journal=Social Science & Medicine|language=en|volume=128|page=53|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.12.030|pmid=25589032|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2022-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413002649/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953614008387|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Hains|first1=Carrie-Anne Marie|last2=Hulbert-Williams|first2=Nicholas J|date=2013|title=Attitudes toward euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide: a study of the multivariate effects of healthcare training, patient characteristics, religion and locus of control|url=https://jme.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/medethics-2012-100729|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|language=en|volume=39|issue=11|pages=713–716|doi=10.1136/medethics-2012-100729|pmid=23378530|s2cid=9657186|issn=0306-6800|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717161405/https://jme.bmj.com/content/39/11/713|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last=Aghababaei|first=Naser|date=2013|title=The Euthanasia-Religion Nexus: Exploring Religious Orientation and Euthanasia Attitude Measures in a Muslim Context|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2190/OM.66.4.d|journal=OMEGA – Journal of Death and Dying|language=en|volume=66|issue=4|pages=333–341|doi=10.2190/OM.66.4.d|pmid=23785984|s2cid=20288072|issn=0030-2228|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206055534/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2190/OM.66.4.d|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last=Marsala|first=Miles S.|date=2019|title=Approval of Euthanasia: Differences Between Cohorts and Religion|journal=SAGE Open|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|page=1|doi=10.1177/2158244019835921|issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free}} Individuals who express a belief in God as an entity who controls destiny were more opposed to legalisation of euthanasia and physician assisted suicide.{{Cite journal|last1=Gielen|first1=Joris|last2=van den Branden|first2=Stef|last3=Broeckaert|first3=Bert|date=2009|title=Religion and Nurses' Attitudes To Euthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0969733009102692|journal=Nursing Ethics|language=en|volume=16|issue=3|page=311|doi=10.1177/0969733009102692|pmid=19372125|s2cid=6777605|issn=0969-7330|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207010935/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0969733009102692|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Bendiane|first1=M.|last2=Galinier|first2=A|last3=Favre|first3=R|last4=Ribiere|first4=C|last5=Lapiana|first5=J-M|last6=Obadia|first6=Y|last7=Peretti-Watel|first7=P|date=2007-12-01|title=French district nurses' opinions towards euthanasia, involvement in end-of-life care and nurse patient relationship: a national phone survey|url=|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|language=en|volume=33|issue=12|pages=708–711|doi=10.1136/jme.2006.018374|issn=0306-6800|pmc=2598217|pmid=18055901}} For example, religions such as Christian Science, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Hinduism, Islam, Jehovah's Witness, Seventh-day Adventist generally do not allow for or practice euthanasia.{{Cite journal|last1=Burdette|first1=Amy M.|last2=Hill|first2=Terrence D.|last3=Moulton|first3=Benjamin E.|date=2005|title=Religion and Attitudes Toward Physician-Assisted Suicide and Terminal Palliative Care|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00266.x|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=79–93|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00266.x|issn=0021-8294|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717161144/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00266.x|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

{{Main|Religion and abortion}}

Many religions hold philosophical value toward life of all forms and are thus completely against abortion.{{Cite journal|last1=Harris|first1=Richard J.|last2=Mills|first2=Edgar W.|date=1985|title=Religion, Values and Attitudes toward Abortion|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1386338|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|volume=24|issue=2|pages=137|doi=10.2307/1386338|jstor=1386338|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2020-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819052106/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1386338|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} However abortion is tolerated in specific cases, such as rape or when the mother's life is in danger.

Religious philosophy influences many aspects of an individual's conception and outlook on life. For example, empirical studies concentrating on the philosophical concept of spirituality at or near the end of life, conducted in India, found that individuals who follow Indian philosophical concepts are influenced by these concepts in their 'perception of spirituality'.{{Cite journal|last=Inbadas|first=Hamilton|date=2018-10-02|title=Indian philosophical foundations of spirituality at the end of life|url=|journal=Mortality|language=en|volume=23|issue=4|pages=320–333|doi=10.1080/13576275.2017.1351936|issn=1357-6275|pmc=6157526|pmid=30294243}}

Considerations concerning medical care, death, diet, and pregnancy differ among followers of various religions due to their respective philosophies.{{Citation|last1=Swihart|first1=Diana L.|title=Cultural Religious Competence In Clinical Practice|date=2020|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493216/|work=StatPearls|place=Treasure Island (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=29630268|access-date=2020-11-02|last2=Yarrarapu|first2=Siva Naga S.|last3=Martin|first3=Romaine L.|archive-date=2021-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130191641/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493216/|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Ya-Ling|last2=Yates|first2=Patsy|last3=Prior|first3=Deborah|date=2009|title=Factors influencing oncology nurses' approaches to accommodating cultural needs in palliative care: Factors influencing nurses' approaches in palliative care|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2009.02938.x|journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing|language=en|volume=18|issue=24|pages=3421–3429|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2009.02938.x|pmid=20487490|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717160837/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2009.02938.x|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

Islamic philosophies forbid the violation of the human body,{{Cite journal|last1=Oliver|first1=M.|last2=Woywodt|first2=A.|last3=Ahmed|first3=A.|last4=Saif|first4=I.|date=2011-02-01|title=Organ donation, transplantation and religion|journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation|language=en|volume=26|issue=2|page=438|doi=10.1093/ndt/gfq628|pmid=20961891|issn=0931-0509|doi-access=free}} however simultaneously place importance on selflessness;

And whoever saves one - it is as if he had saved mankind entirely. (Quran 5:32)

Organ donation is generally endorsed, through the principle that necessity overrides prohibition known as al-darurat tubih al-mahzurat.{{Cite journal|last=Messina|first=E.|date=2015|title=Beyond the Officially Sacred, Donor and Believer: Religion and Organ Transplantation|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0041134515006545|journal=Transplantation Proceedings|language=en|volume=47|issue=7|page=2093|doi=10.1016/j.transproceed.2015.06.031|pmid=26361651|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701103039/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0041134515006545|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Objections to organ donation in Islamic religion is mainly originated on cultural foundations rather than religious philosophical ones, with their altruistic principle allowing for exceptions in regard to medical intervention, for example; involving porcine bone grafts and pork insulin.{{Cite journal|last=Hassaballah|first=A. M.|date=1996-06-01|title=Definition of death, organ donation and interruption of treatment in Islam|journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation|language=en|volume=11|issue=6|page=964|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.ndt.a027515|issn=0931-0509}} Formal decisions have been made regarding organ donation in association with Islamic teachings, for example, the UK Muslim Law Council in 1996 issued a Ijtihad (religious ruling) that defined organ transplantation within the scope of the Islamic following, and Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly Council in Saudi Arabia in 1988 approving organ donation, with similar formal decisions made in Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan.{{Cite journal|last1=Golmakani|first1=Mohammad Mehdi|last2=Niknam|first2=Mohammad Hussein|last3=Hedayat|first3=Kamyar M.|date=2005|title=Transplantation ethics from the Islamic point of view|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15795706|journal=Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research|volume=11|issue=4|pages=RA105–109|issn=1234-1010|pmid=15795706|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2021-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230163831/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15795706/|url-status=live}}

Islamic jurisprudence does not condone or allow for an individual to die voluntarily.{{Cite journal |last=Isgandarova |first=Nazila |date=2015 |title=Physician-Assisted Suicide and Other Forms of Euthanasia in Islamic Spiritual Care |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1542305015616099 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling |language=en |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=215–221 |doi=10.1177/1542305015616099 |issn=1542-3050 |pmid=26631521 |s2cid=206757887 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230170718/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1542305015616099 |archive-date=2021-12-30 |access-date=2020-11-20|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Rm |first1=Yousuf |last2=Ar |first2=Mohammed Fauzi |date=2012 |title=Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide: A Review from Islamic Point of View |url=https://journals.iium.edu.my/kom/index.php/imjm/article/view/556 |url-status=live |journal=IIUM Medical Journal Malaysia |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |doi=10.31436/imjm.v11i1.556 |issn=2735-2285 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112125003/https://journals.iium.edu.my/kom/index.php/imjm/article/view/556 |archive-date=2021-01-12 |access-date=2020-11-20 |doi-access=free}} Islamic philosophies indicate that life is a divine, sacred gift, with Allah deciding how long each individual will live.{{Cite journal |last1=K |first1=Aramesh |last2=H |first2=Shadi |date=2007-01-01 |title=EUTHANASIA: AN ISLAMIC ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE |url=https://www.sid.ir/en/Journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=83985 |url-status=live |journal=Iranian Journal of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology |language=En |volume=6 |issue=5 |page=37 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614160305/https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=83985 |archive-date=2022-06-14 |access-date=2020-11-20}} The moment of death, known as ajal, cannot be hastened by any form of passive or active voluntary intervention (e.g. in the form of euthanasia) as this is completely under the control of Allah.{{Cite journal |last=Ayuba |first=Mahmud Adesina |date=2016 |title=Euthanasia: A Muslim's Perspective |url=http://scriptura.journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/1175 |url-status=live |journal=Scriptura |volume=115 |doi=10.7833/115-0-1175 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022061303/https://scriptura.journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/1175 |archive-date=2020-10-22 |access-date=2020-11-20 |doi-access=free}} Only Allah has the absolute authority and ability to give life as well as take it away. Islamic philosophies emphasise that life does not belong to the human, but to Allah. Although the Qur'an states "Nor take life – which Allah has made sacred – except for just cause" (Quran 17:33), hadith literature indicates that despite intolerable pain and suffering, euthanasia is not condoned. For example, according to Sahih Muslim, in the Battle of Hunayn a Muslim warrior committed suicide due to the pain of his wound however Muhammad declared that this act negated his courage and service to God and doomed him to Hell.

{{Expand section|date=September 2024}}

Christian philosophies generally endorse organ donation although reasoning and opinion differ amongst sects. Christian theologians reference the Bible{{Cite journal|last1=Tarabeih|first1=Mahdi|last2=Abu-Rakia|first2=Riad|last3=Bokek-Cohen|first3=Ya'arit|last4=Azuri|first4=Pazit|date=2020-03-04|title=Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and unwillingness to donate organs post-mortem|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07481187.2020.1734114|journal=Death Studies|volume=46|issue=2|language=en|pages=391–398|doi=10.1080/07481187.2020.1734114|pmid=32129149|s2cid=212403687|issn=0748-1187|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2022-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302031734/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07481187.2020.1734114|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} in regard to organ donation, particularly;

Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils: Freely you have received, freely give. (Matthew 10:8){{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 10:8 – New International Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010%3A8&version=NIV|access-date=2020-11-20|website=Bible Gateway|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128034835/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010:8&version=NIV|url-status=live}}

Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends. (John 15:13){{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: John 15:13 – New International Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2015%3A13&version=NIV|access-date=2020-11-20|website=Bible Gateway|language=en|archive-date=2020-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928105122/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2015%3A13&version=NIV|url-status=live}}

{{Expand section|date=December 2024}}

Jewish philosophies hold great importance on the intact burial of the deceased persons due to halakhic foundations.{{Cite journal|last1=Tarabeih|first1=Mahdi|last2=Abu-Rakia|first2=Riad|last3=Bokek-Cohen|first3=Ya'arit|last4=Azuri|first4=Pazit|date=2020-03-04|title=Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and unwillingness to donate organs post-mortem|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2020.1734114|journal=Death Studies|volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=391–398 |doi=10.1080/07481187.2020.1734114|issn=0748-1187|pmid=32129149|s2cid=212403687|url-access=subscription}} However, much like Islam, altruism in the form of saving a life, known as pikuach nefesh in Jewish law, overrides all other commandments and prohibition;{{Cite journal|last=Messina|first=E.|date=2015|title=Beyond the Officially Sacred, Donor and Believer: Religion and Organ Transplantation|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0041134515006545|journal=Transplantation Proceedings|language=en|volume=47|issue=7|page=2094|doi=10.1016/j.transproceed.2015.06.031|pmid=26361651|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701103039/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0041134515006545|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

Whoever destroys a soul, it is considered as if he destroyed an entire world. And whoever saves a life, it is considered as if he saved an entire world. (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 37a)

Organ donation is endorsed by most Jewish scholars.

Jewish philosophies in Rabbinical works generally condemn abortion, foeticide, or infanticide as it is viewed as an immoral action on human life.{{Cite journal|last=Jakobovits|first=I.|date=1968|title=Jewish views on abortion|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12309928|journal=Child and Family|volume=7|issue=2|pages=142–156|issn=0009-3882|pmid=12309928|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2021-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515031046/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12309928/|url-status=live}} However, 'abortion appears as an option for Jewish women from the earliest sources of the Bible and Mishnaic commentary',{{Citation|last=Maguire|first=Daniel C.|title=Abortion and Religion|date=2016-04-21|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies|page=3|editor-last=Wong|editor-first=Angela|place=Singapore|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|isbn=978-1-4051-9694-9|access-date=2020-11-20|editor2-last=Wickramasinghe|editor2-first=Maithree|editor3-last=hoogland|editor3-first=renee|editor4-last=Naples|editor4-first=Nancy A|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717161401/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite book|last=Zoloth|first=Laurie|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50080419|title=Sacred rights : the case for contraception and abortion in world religions|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Maguire, Daniel C.|isbn=0195160002|page=38|oclc=50080419|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717161747/https://www.worldcat.org/title/50080419|url-status=live}} where the Talmud indicates that a mother's life is prioritised if her life or wellbeing is put at risk by the child, thereby permitting abortion. Jewish laws do not condone abortion in scenarios involving rape or incest.

Hindu philosophies prohibit abortion, in line with dharmasastras. Hindu philosophy regarding conception involve the belief that both physical and spiritual qualities, like an individual's past karma, exist and enter the human embryo from the moment of conception.{{Citation|last=Maguire|first=Daniel C.|title=Abortion and Religion|date=2016-04-21|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies|pages=1–5|editor-last=Wong|editor-first=Angela|place=Singapore|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|isbn=978-1-4051-9694-9|access-date=2020-11-20|editor2-last=Wickramasinghe|editor2-first=Maithree|editor3-last=hoogland|editor3-first=renee|editor4-last=Naples|editor4-first=Nancy A|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717161401/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

In Buddhist philosophies, much like Hindu philosophies, there is a morally negative view towards abortion{{Cite book|last=Maguire|first=Daniel C.|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195160017.001.0001/acprof-9780195160017|title=Sacred Rights|date=2003-04-03|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-516001-7|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195160017.001.0001|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2021-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711133600/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195160017.001.0001/acprof-9780195160017|url-status=live}} in accordance to the Five Precepts. However, the intention behind an action is an important consideration,{{Cite book|last=Maguire, Daniel C.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/297149656|title=Ethics : a complete method for moral choice|date=2010|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-6443-5|location=Minneapolis, MN|oclc=297149656}}{{Cite journal|last=Florida|first=R. E.|date=1991|title=Buddhist Approaches to Abortion|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552369108575334|journal=Asian Philosophy|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=39–50|doi=10.1080/09552369108575334|issn=0955-2367|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2022-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221035921/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552369108575334|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} and therefore many Buddhists accept the idea of abortion if under the pretence of good intention.{{Citation|last=Maguire|first=Daniel C.|title=Abortion and Religion|date=2016-04-21|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies|page=2|editor-last=Wong|editor-first=Angela|place=Singapore|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|isbn=978-1-4051-9694-9|access-date=2020-11-20|editor2-last=Wickramasinghe|editor2-first=Maithree|editor3-last=hoogland|editor3-first=renee|editor4-last=Naples|editor4-first=Nancy A|archive-date=2023-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717161401/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss267|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

Taoist philosophy expresses a desire to find and maintain a balance between populations and their resources. Therefore, due to these philosophies, population management were of national interests observed in China's 'one child' policy.{{Cite web|last=Shang|first=Geling|date=2003|title=Excess, Lack, and Harmony: Some Confucian and Taoist Approaches to Family Planning and Population Management – Tradition and the Modern Challenge|url=https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/1004682|access-date=2020-11-20|website=eweb:254212|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230170713/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/1004682|url-status=live}} However, abortion is not encouraged as it would 'corrupt the body and would wrongly negate the body's capacity to give life'.{{Cite journal|last=La Salle University|date=1995-10-01|title=Gender Lines Fall 1995|url=https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/gender_lines/5|journal=Gender Lines|page=48|access-date=2020-11-20|archive-date=2020-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706144634/https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/gender_lines/5/|url-status=live}}

{{portal|Philosophy}}

Each religion also has unique philosophies that distinguish them from other religions, and these philosophies are guided through the concepts and values behind the teaching pertaining to that belief-system. Different religious philosophies include:

• {{annotated link|Aztec philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Buddhist philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Christian philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Hindu philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Islamic philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Jain philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Jewish philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Sikh philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Taoist philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Zoroastrian philosophy}}

{{reflist}}

• {{Commons category-inline}}