reticular materials

The most notable examples of reticular chemistry are metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) which consist of metal ions or clusters connected by anionic organic linkers and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) that consist of organic molecules linked via covalent bonds.{{Cite web |last=מיכל |date=2018-12-12 |title=Omar M. Yaghi |url=https://wolffund.org.il/omar-yaghi/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Wolf Foundation |language=en-US}} Another example includes zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs). Overarching key features of reticular materials are the following:

Reticular materials are highly ordered and often porous, making them suitable for applications like gas storage, catalysis, and drug delivery.{{Cite web |title=Are metal-organic frameworks at a commercial tipping point? |url=https://www.cas.org/resources/cas-insights/metal-organic-frameworks |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.cas.org |language=en}}

The design of reticular materials can be tailored to specific needs through the choice of nodes (metal ions, organic molecules) and linkers (organic ligands, covalent bonds). This tunability allows precise control over physical, chemical, and mechanical properties.{{Cite journal |last1=Ettlinger |first1=Romy |last2=Peña |first2=Quim |last3=Wuttke |first3=Stefan |date=2024 |title=Nano-to-Macroscale Reticular Materials to Address Societal Challenges |url=https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202401844 |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |language=en |volume=34 |issue=43 |pages=2401844 |doi=10.1002/adfm.202401844 |issn=1616-3028}}

Many reticular materials feature extremely high internal surface areas. One gram of a reticular material can have the internal surface area equivalent to several football fields.{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Cheng-Hsin |last2=Nguyen |first2=Ha L. |last3=Yaghi |first3=Omar M. |date=2020-11-25 |title=Reticular Chemistry and Harvesting Water from Desert Air |url=https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.51167/acm00007 |journal=AsiaChem Magazine |volume=1 |pages=18–25 |doi=10.51167/acm00007|url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }} These properties enhance their effectiveness in adsorption, separation, and energy storage applications.{{Cite journal |date=2016-12-07 |title=Reticular Chemistry—Construction, Properties, and Precision Reactions of Frameworks |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.6b11821 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=138 |issue=48 |pages=15507–15509 |doi=10.1021/jacs.6b11821 |issn=0002-7863 |last1=Yaghi |first1=Omar M. |pmid=27934016 |bibcode=2016JAChS.13815507Y |url-access=subscription }}

Depending on the choice of materials and synthesis methods, reticular materials, because of the strong bonds, can be designed to withstand extreme temperatures and harsh chemical environments over extended periods of time, making them suitable for demanding industrial processes.{{Cite journal |last1=Chafiq |first1=Maryam |last2=Chaouiki |first2=Abdelkarim |last3=Ko |first3=Young Gun |date=2023-09-22 |title=Recent Advances in Multifunctional Reticular Framework Nanoparticles: A Paradigm Shift in Materials Science Road to a Structured Future |journal=Nano-Micro Letters |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=213 |doi=10.1007/s40820-023-01180-9 |issn=2150-5551 |pmc=10516851 |pmid=37736827|bibcode=2023NML....15..213C }}

Reticular materials are being developed and commercialized for a wide range of applications, from environmental solutions to advanced applications in medicine and electronics.{{Cite journal |last1=Yusuf |first1=Vadia Foziya |last2=Malek |first2=Naved I. |last3=Kailasa |first3=Suresh Kumar |date=2022-12-02 |title=Review on Metal–Organic Framework Classification, Synthetic Approaches, and Influencing Factors: Applications in Energy, Drug Delivery, and Wastewater Treatment |url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c05310 |journal=ACS Omega |volume=7 |issue=49 |pages=44507–44531 |doi=10.1021/acsomega.2c05310 |pmid=36530292 |pmc=9753116 |issn=2470-1343}}

Reticular materials are increasingly being used in carbon capture technologies, where their robustness and their ability to adsorb large volumes of gases make them suitable for trapping carbon dioxide (CO₂).{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Zihui |last2=Ma |first2=Tianqiong |last3=Zhang |first3=Heyang |last4=Chheda |first4=Saumil |last5=Li |first5=Haozhe |last6=Wang |first6=Kaiyu |last7=Ehrling |first7=Sebastian |last8=Giovine |first8=Raynald |last9=Li |first9=Chuanshuai |last10=Alawadhi |first10=Ali H. |last11=Abduljawad |first11=Marwan M. |last12=Alawad |first12=Majed O. |last13=Gagliardi |first13=Laura |last14=Sauer |first14=Joachim |last15=Yaghi |first15=Omar M. |date=November 2024 |title=Carbon dioxide capture from open air using covalent organic frameworks |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08080-x |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=635 |issue=8037 |pages=96–101 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-08080-x |pmid=39443804 |bibcode=2024Natur.635...96Z |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }} Companies like Atoco, Nuada and BASF are pioneering the development of technologies based on reticular materials for CO₂ capture, leveraging their ability to selectively adsorb and capture carbon dioxide molecules from the atmosphere (Direct Air Capture, DAC) or industrial exhaust gases (Post Combustion Capture, PCC).{{Cite web |date=2024-03-15 |title=Cutting-Edge Carbon Capture {{!}} Technology {{!}} Atoco |url=https://atoco.com/our-technology/carbon-capture/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=BASF becomes first company to successfully produce metal-organic frameworks on a commercial scale for carbon capture |url=https://www.basf.com/global/en/media/news-releases/2023/10/p-23-327 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.basf.com |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Nuada – The next-generation carbon capture technology |url=https://nuadaco2.com/technology/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Nuada |language=en-US}} These advancements in reticular materials are expected to significantly improve the cost-efficiency of carbon capture solutions.{{Cite journal |last1=Sher |first1=Farooq |last2=Hayward |first2=Anna |last3=Guerraf |first3=Abdelqader El |last4=Wang |first4=Bohong |last5=Ziani |first5=Imane |last6=Hrnjić |first6=Harun |last7=Boškailo |first7=Emina |last8=Chupin |first8=Alexander |last9=R. Nemţanu |first9=Monica |date=2024 |title=Advanced metal–organic frameworks for superior carbon capture, high-performance energy storage and environmental photocatalysis – a critical review |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |language=en |volume=12 |issue=41 |pages=27932–27973 |doi=10.1039/D4TA03877K|doi-access=free }}

The ability of reticular materials to adsorb and desorb water molecules from air makes them suitable for the development of technologies for atmospheric water generation (AWG), a process that extracts moisture from the air to provide fresh water, even in arid regions.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Wentao |last2=Yaghi |first2=Omar M. |date=2020-08-26 |title=Metal–Organic Frameworks for Water Harvesting from Air, Anywhere, Anytime |journal=ACS Central Science |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=1348–1354 |doi=10.1021/acscentsci.0c00678 |issn=2374-7943 |pmc=7453559 |pmid=32875075}} This technology holds promise for addressing water scarcity in areas where traditional water resources are limited, offering an environmentally friendly solution for water harvesting and storage.{{Cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Hengyi |last2=Shi |first2=Wen |last3=Guo |first3=Youhong |last4=Guan |first4=Weixin |last5=Lei |first5=Chuxin |last6=Yu |first6=Guihua |date=2022 |title=Materials Engineering for Atmospheric Water Harvesting: Progress and Perspectives |url=https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adma.202110079 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=2110079 |doi=10.1002/adma.202110079 |pmid=35122451 |bibcode=2022AdM....3410079L |issn=1521-4095|url-access=subscription }} Companies like Air Joule and Atoco are advancing the use of reticular materials in the fight against water scarcity.{{Cite web |date=2023-07-03 |title=Atoco's Tech: Carbon Capture & Water Harvesting |url=https://atoco.com/our-technology/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Proprietary MOF technology for water generation |url=https://airjouletech.com/technology/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=AirJoule® |language=en-US}}

Reticular materials are particularly well-suited for gas separation and storage, owing to their highly porous structures and the ability to selectively adsorb specific gases.{{Cite journal |last1=Smirnova |first1=Oksana |last2=Ojha |first2=Subham |last3=De |first3=Ankita |last4=Schneemann |first4=Andreas |last5=Haase |first5=Frederik |last6=Knebel |first6=Alexander |date=2024 |title=Tiny Windows in Reticular Nanomaterials for Molecular Sieving Gas Separation Membranes |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |language=en |volume=34 |issue=43 |pages=2306202 |doi=10.1002/adfm.202306202 |issn=1616-3028|doi-access=free }} This application is critical in industries such as energy, where efficient hydrogen storage is essential for clean fuel technologies.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xiaocheng |last2=Liu |first2=Pengxiao |last3=Zhang |first3=Ying |date=2023-11-01 |title=The application of MOFs for hydrogen storage |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0020169323003080 |journal=Inorganica Chimica Acta |volume=557 |pages=121683 |doi=10.1016/j.ica.2023.121683 |issn=0020-1693|url-access=subscription }} H2MOF, for instance, uses reticular materials to store hydrogen gas in solid state at high densities, making them viable for use in fuel cells and other hydrogen-based energy systems.{{Cite web |date=2023-05-31 |title=Solid State Hydrogen Storage Technology {{!}} H2MOF |url=https://h2mof.com/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |language=en-US}} Reticular materials are also used for the separation of gases like methane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, helping improve efficiency in natural gas processing, air separation, and other industrial processes.{{Citation |last=Keskin |first=Seda |title=Molecular Modeling of Metal–Organic Frameworks for Carbon Dioxide Separation Applications |date=2015-01-22 |work=Metal-Organic Frameworks |pages=339–379 |url=https://doi.org/10.1201/b18039-9 |access-date=2025-02-06 |publisher=Pan Stanford |doi=10.1201/b18039-9 |doi-broken-date=5 March 2025 |isbn=978-981-4613-45-3|url-access=subscription }} Companies like ExxonMobil, UniSieve, and Porous Liquid Technologies are advancing the use of reticular materials in the context of gas separation and storage.{{Cite web |title=ExxonMobil Corporation |url=https://corporate.exxonmobil.com/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=ExxonMobil |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Gas Separation Membranes {{!}} UniSieve |url=https://www.unisieve.com/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=UniSieve - Membranes |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Welcome to Porous Liquid Technology |url=https://www.porousliquidtechnologies.com/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Porous Liquid Technologies |language=en-US}}

Reticular materials are applied in chemical protection, especially in protective equipment such as gas masks.{{Cite journal |last1=Costa |first1=Carlos M. |last2=Cardoso |first2=Vanessa F. |last3=Martins |first3=Pedro |last4=Correia |first4=Daniela M. |last5=Gonçalves |first5=Renato |last6=Costa |first6=Pedro |last7=Correia |first7=Vitor |last8=Ribeiro |first8=Clarisse |last9=Fernandes |first9=Margarida M. |last10=Martins |first10=Pedro M. |last11=Lanceros-Méndez |first11=Senentxu |date=2023-10-11 |title=Smart and Multifunctional Materials Based on Electroactive Poly(vinylidene fluoride): Recent Advances and Opportunities in Sensors, Actuators, Energy, Environmental, and Biomedical Applications |journal=Chemical Reviews |language=en |volume=123 |issue=19 |pages=11392–11487 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00196 |pmid=37729110 |pmc=10571047 |issn=0009-2665|hdl=1822/93622 |hdl-access=free }} Companies like Numat and Tetramer are utilizing MOFs and other reticular materials in the development of advanced filtration systems.{{Cite web |title=Chemical Protection |url=https://www.numat.com/solutions/chemical-protection/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Numat |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://tetramer.com/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250113160149/https://tetramer.com/ |archive-date=2025-01-13 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Tetramer |language=en-US}} These materials can adsorb hazardous gases and chemicals, offering enhanced protection for individuals in toxic or hazardous environments. Their high surface area and tunable pore sizes make them highly effective at capturing a wide range of harmful substances, including chemical warfare agents, industrial chemicals, and other toxic compounds, making them a valuable component in personal protective equipment (PPE).{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Junmei |last2=Fan |first2=Yinan |last3=Zhang |first3=Ruigan |last4=Ban |first4=Demao |last5=Duan |first5=Zhixuan |last6=Liu |first6=Xiaoyuan |last7=Liu |first7=Lifang |date=2024-10-21 |title=A review on metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and MOF–textile composites for personal protection |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/qm/d4qm00358f/unauth#:~:text=Metal%E2%80%93organic%20frameworks%20(MOFs)%20have%20become%20a%20research%20hotspot,pore%20capacity,%20and%20customizable%20structure. |journal=Materials Chemistry Frontiers |language=en |volume=8 |issue=21 |pages=3509–3527 |doi=10.1039/D4QM00358F |issn=2052-1537|url-access=subscription }}

Reticular materials are also making an impact in the electronics industry, particularly in the development of advanced electronic devices.{{Cite journal |last1=Parashar |first1=Ranjeev Kumar |last2=Jash |first2=Priyajit |last3=Zharnikov |first3=Michael |last4=Mondal |first4=Prakash Chandra |date=2024 |title=Metal-organic Frameworks in Semiconductor Devices |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |language=en |volume=63 |issue=15 |pages=e202317413 |doi=10.1002/anie.202317413 |pmid=38252076 |issn=1521-3773|doi-access=free }} The unique properties of reticular materials enable the development of flexible and high-performance components such as capacitors, transistors, and photodetectors.{{Cite journal |last1=Day |first1=Robert W. |last2=Bediako |first2=D. Kwabena |last3=Rezaee |first3=Mehdi |last4=Parent |first4=Lucas R. |last5=Skorupskii |first5=Grigorii |last6=Arguilla |first6=Maxx Q. |last7=Hendon |first7=Christopher H. |last8=Stassen |first8=Ivo |last9=Gianneschi |first9=Nathan C. |last10=Kim |first10=Philip |last11=Dincă |first11=Mircea |date=2019-12-26 |title=Single Crystals of Electrically Conductive Two-Dimensional Metal–Organic Frameworks: Structural and Electrical Transport Properties |journal=ACS Central Science |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=1959–1964 |doi=10.1021/acscentsci.9b01006 |issn=2374-7943 |pmc=6936098 |pmid=31893225}} The reticular materials’ ability to store and release charge, coupled with their tunable electronic properties, positions them as promising candidates for next-generation electronic devices and sensors technologies.{{Cite journal |last=McCreery |first=Richard L. |date=2022-10-04 |title=Carbon-Based Molecular Junctions for Practical Molecular Electronics |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00401 |journal=Accounts of Chemical Research |volume=55 |issue=19 |pages=2766–2779 |doi=10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00401 |pmid=36137180 |issn=0001-4842|url-access=subscription }}

In the medical field, reticular materials, particularly MOFs, are being assessed and tested for a variety of use-cases, from drug delivery systems to medical imaging.{{Cite journal |last1=Hefayathullah |first1=Mohamed |last2=Singh |first2=Smita |last3=Ganesan |first3=Vellaichamy |last4=Maduraiveeran |first4=Govindhan |date=2024-09-01 |title=Metal-organic frameworks for biomedical applications: A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001868624001337 |journal=Advances in Colloid and Interface Science |volume=331 |pages=103210 |doi=10.1016/j.cis.2024.103210 |pmid=38865745 |issn=0001-8686|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=Harrison D. |last2=Walton |first2=S. Patrick |last3=Chan |first3=Christina |date=2021-02-17 |title=Metal–Organic Frameworks for Drug Delivery: A Design Perspective |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=7004–7020 |doi=10.1021/acsami.1c01089 |pmid=33554591 |pmc=11790311 |issn=1944-8244}} Their high surface area and biocompatibility allow them to be used as carriers for controlled release of therapeutic agents, offering targeted treatments with reduced side effects.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Zhijue |last2=Wu |first2=Zhaoyu |last3=Huang |first3=Sheng |last4=Ye |first4=Kaichuang |last5=Jiang |first5=Yihong |last6=Liu |first6=Jianqiang |last7=Liu |first7=Junchao |last8=Lu |first8=Xinwu |last9=Li |first9=Bo |date=February 2023 |title=A metal-organic framework-based immunomodulatory nanoplatform for anti-atherosclerosis treatment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168365923000251 |journal=Journal of Controlled Release |language=en |volume=354 |pages=615–625 |doi=10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.01.024|pmid=36641123 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhong |first1=Yuyu |last2=Peng |first2=Zhaoxi |last3=Peng |first3=Yanqiong |last4=Li |first4=Bo |last5=Pan |first5=Ying |last6=Ouyang |first6=Qin |last7=Sakiyama |first7=Hiroshi |last8=Muddassir |first8=Mohd. |last9=Liu |first9=Jianqiang |date=2023 |title=Construction of Fe-doped ZIF-8/DOX nanocomposites for ferroptosis strategy in the treatment of breast cancer |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D3TB00749A |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry B |language=en |volume=11 |issue=27 |pages=6335–6345 |doi=10.1039/D3TB00749A |pmid=37350051 |issn=2050-750X|url-access=subscription }} Additionally, reticular materials are being explored for applications in diagnostics, such as imaging agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or as biosensors for detecting disease markers.{{Cite journal |last1=Du |first1=Liping |last2=Chen |first2=Wei |last3=Zhu |first3=Ping |last4=Tian |first4=Yulan |last5=Chen |first5=Yating |last6=Wu |first6=Chunsheng |date=February 2021 |title=Applications of Functional Metal-Organic Frameworks in Biosensors |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/biot.201900424 |journal=Biotechnology Journal |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=e1900424 |doi=10.1002/biot.201900424 |pmid=32271998 |issn=1860-6768|url-access=subscription }} Their versatility and ability to be tailored to specific medical applications make them a key focus of ongoing research in the biomedical field.{{Cite journal |last1=Yaraki |first1=Mohammad Tavakkoli |last2=Zahed Nasab |first2=Shima |last3=Zare |first3=Iman |last4=Dahri |first4=Mohammad |last5=Moein Sadeghi |first5=Mohammad |last6=Koohi |first6=Maedeh |last7=Tan |first7=Yen Nee |date=2022-05-16 |title=Biomimetic Metallic Nanostructures for Biomedical Applications, Catalysis, and Beyond |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research |volume=61 |issue=22 |pages=7547–7593 |doi=10.1021/acs.iecr.2c00285 |issn=0888-5885|doi-access=free }} Commercial players working on the integration of reticular materials include Vector Bioscience Cambridge, Gilead Sciences and Medtronic.{{Cite web |title=Vector Bioscience – Redefining biologics delivery |url=https://vectorbiocam.com/ |access-date=2025-02-06 |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last=Medtronic |title=Global Healthcare Technology Leader {{!}} Medtronic |url=https://europe.medtronic.com/xd-en/index.html |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=europe.medtronic.com |language=en-US}}

The use of reticular materials in sensor technologies is rapidly expanding due to their ability to selectively adsorb and interact with various gases, liquids, and ions.{{Cite journal |last1=Sohrabi |first1=Hessamaddin |last2=Ghasemzadeh |first2=Shahin |last3=Ghoreishi |first3=Zahra |last4=Majidi |first4=Mir Reza |last5=Yoon |first5=Yeojoon |last6=Dizge |first6=Nadir |last7=Khataee |first7=Alireza |date=2023-04-15 |title=Metal-organic frameworks (MOF)-based sensors for detection of toxic gases: A review of current status and future prospects |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0254058423002201 |journal=Materials Chemistry and Physics |volume=299 |pages=127512 |doi=10.1016/j.matchemphys.2023.127512 |issn=0254-0584|url-access=subscription }} These properties make them highly effective in detecting and measuring specific substances in the environment.{{Cite book |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/book/10.1021/bk-2021-1394 |title=Metal−Organic Frameworks for Environmental Sensing |date=2021-10-29 |publisher=American Chemical Society |isbn=978-0-8412-9810-1 |editor-last=Kumar |editor-first=Smita S. |series=ACS Symposium Series |volume=1394 |location=Washington, DC |language=en |doi=10.1021/bk-2021-1394 |editor-last2=Ghosh |editor-first2=Pooja |editor-last3=Singh |editor-first3=Lakhveer}} For example, MOFs and COFs are being developed for use in chemical sensors, gas detectors, and humidity sensors. These sensors can be employed in a variety of applications, from environmental monitoring to industrial safety, providing real-time data for detecting pollutants, toxic gases, or changes in environmental conditions.{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Pawan |last2=Deep |first2=Akash |last3=Kim |first3=Ki-Hyun |date=2015-11-01 |title=Metal organic frameworks for sensing applications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165993615001090 |journal=TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry |volume=73 |pages=39–53 |doi=10.1016/j.trac.2015.04.009 |issn=0165-9936|url-access=subscription }} The adaptability and sensitivity of reticular materials make them crucial for advancing sensor technologies in both commercial and industrial settings.{{Cite journal |last1=Zuliani |first1=Alessio |last2=Khiar |first2=Noureddine |last3=Carrillo-Carrión |first3=Carolina |date=2023-05-01 |title=Recent progress of metal–organic frameworks as sensors in (bio)analytical fields: towards real-world applications |journal=Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry |language=en |volume=415 |issue=11 |pages=2005–2023 |doi=10.1007/s00216-022-04493-7 |issn=1618-2650 |pmc=9811896 |pmid=36598537}} Companies working on the implementation of reticular materials in the context of sensors include AstraZeneca, AMGEN, and CSL Behring.{{Cite web |title=Pipeline - AstraZeneca |url=https://www.astrazeneca.com/our-therapy-areas/pipeline.html |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.astrazeneca.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Amgen Science |url=https://www.amgen.com/science |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250126145528/https://www.amgen.com/science |archive-date=2025-01-26 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Amgen |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Research & Development |url=https://www.csl.com/research-and-development |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=CSL |language=en-US}}

File:The structure of MOF-5.png

MOF-5 is one of the earliest metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) discovered, composed of zinc oxide (Zn₄O) clusters and terephthalic acid (BDC) ligands. It is known for its large surface area and high porosity, making it a promising material for gas storage applications, particularly hydrogen storage and carbon dioxide capture. As a foundational MOF, MOF-5 has played a significant role in the development of porous materials for energy and environmental applications.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hailian |last2=Eddaoudi |first2=Mohamed |last3=O'Keeffe |first3=M. |last4=Yaghi |first4=O. M. |date=November 1999 |title=Design and synthesis of an exceptionally stable and highly porous metal-organic framework |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/46248 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=402 |issue=6759 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/46248 |bibcode=1999Natur.402..276L |hdl=2027.42/62847 |issn=1476-4687|hdl-access=free }}

MOF-74 is a metal-organic framework (MOF) characterized by its one-dimensional (1D) channel structure and honeycomb-like network with high porosity. It is composed of metal ions, such as magnesium (Mg), cobalt (Co), or nickel (Ni), connected by 2,5-dihydroxyterephthalic acid (DHTA) linkers. MOF-74 is particularly notable for its exceptional gas adsorption properties, especially for hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Its high surface area and open metal sites enable efficient gas storage, making it a promising material for energy storage and environmental applications.{{Cite journal |last1=Rosi |first1=Nathaniel L. |last2=Kim |first2=Jaheon |last3=Eddaoudi |first3=Mohamed |last4=Chen |first4=Banglin |last5=O'Keeffe |first5=Michael |last6=Yaghi |first6=Omar M. |date=2005-02-01 |title=Rod Packings and Metal−Organic Frameworks Constructed from Rod-Shaped Secondary Building Units |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja045123o |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=127 |issue=5 |pages=1504–1518 |doi=10.1021/ja045123o |pmid=15686384 |bibcode=2005JAChS.127.1504R |issn=0002-7863|url-access=subscription }}

MIL-101 is a metal-organic framework (MOF) composed of chromium (Cr) nodes and terephthalic acid (BDC) linkers. It is distinguished by its exceptionally large pore size and high surface area, making it one of the most porous MOFs synthesized. Due to these properties, MIL-101 is used in gas storage, separation, and catalysis, offering potential applications in energy storage and environmental remediation.{{Cite journal |last1=Férey |first1=G. |last2=Mellot-Draznieks |first2=C. |last3=Serre |first3=C. |last4=Millange |first4=F. |last5=Dutour |first5=J. |last6=Surblé |first6=S. |last7=Margiolaki |first7=I. |date=2005-09-23 |title=A Chromium Terephthalate-Based Solid with Unusually Large Pore Volumes and Surface Area |url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1116275?sid=64a399fe-1df7-4100-8ce6-8488f9af62fd& |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5743 |pages=2040–2042 |doi=10.1126/science.1116275|pmid=16179475 |bibcode=2005Sci...309.2040F }}

MOF-177 is a metal-organic framework (MOF) composed of zinc (Zn) nodes and terephthalate linkers. It is distinguished by its exceptionally large pore volume and high surface area, making it one of the most porous MOFs synthesized. These properties make MOF-177 highly effective for gas storage and separation, particularly for applications involving hydrogen and carbon dioxide capture. Its extensive porosity has contributed to its recognition as a benchmark material in the field of porous frameworks.{{Cite journal |last1=Chae |first1=Hee K. |last2=Siberio-Pérez |first2=Diana Y. |last3=Kim |first3=Jaheon |last4=Go |first4=YongBok |last5=Eddaoudi |first5=Mohamed |last6=Matzger |first6=Adam J. |last7=O'Keeffe |first7=Michael |last8=Yaghi |first8=Omar M. |date=February 2004 |title=A route to high surface area, porosity and inclusion of large molecules in crystals |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02311 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=427 |issue=6974 |pages=523–527 |doi=10.1038/nature02311 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..523C |hdl=2027.42/62609 |issn=1476-4687|hdl-access=free }}

File:UiO-66.webp

UiO-66 is a metal-organic framework (MOF) composed of zirconium (Zr) nodes and terephthalic acid (BDC) ligands. It is known for its exceptional chemical and thermal stability, making it a highly versatile material for various applications. UiO-66 is widely studied for gas storage, separation, and catalysis, with its robust structure enabling efficient performance in harsh conditions. Its stability and tunability have made it one of the most extensively researched MOFs in the field of porous materials.{{Cite journal |last1=Cavka |first1=Jasmina Hafizovic |last2=Jakobsen |first2=Søren |last3=Olsbye |first3=Unni |last4=Guillou |first4=Nathalie |last5=Lamberti |first5=Carlo |last6=Bordiga |first6=Silvia |last7=Lillerud |first7=Karl Petter |date=2008-10-22 |title=A New Zirconium Inorganic Building Brick Forming Metal Organic Frameworks with Exceptional Stability |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja8057953 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=130 |issue=42 |pages=13850–13851 |doi=10.1021/ja8057953 |pmid=18817383 |bibcode=2008JAChS.13013850C |issn=0002-7863|url-access=subscription }}

CALF-20 is a metal-organic framework (MOF) composed of zinc ions coordinated with triazolate and oxalate ligands, forming a three-dimensional porous structure.{{Cite web |date=2021-12-17 |title=UCalgary research test demonstrates value of new carbon capture technology for large-scale industrial use {{!}} News {{!}} University of Calgary |url=https://ucalgary.ca/news/ucalgary-research-test-demonstrates-value-new-carbon-capture-technology-large-scale-industrial-use |access-date=2025-03-06 |website=ucalgary.ca |language=en}} This unique architecture allows CALF-20 to selectively adsorb carbon dioxide (CO₂) over water, making it highly effective for CO₂ capture applications.{{Cite web |last=Ozin |first=Geoffrey |date=2022-01-14 |title=CALF-20: A carbon capture success story |url=https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/calf-20-a-carbon-capture-success-story/ |access-date=2025-03-06 |website=Advanced Science News |language=en-US}} Notably, CALF-20 exhibits exceptional stability under harsh conditions, including exposure to steam, wet acid gases, and prolonged contact with direct flue gas from natural gas combustion.{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Jian-Bin |last2=Nguyen |first2=Tai T. T. |last3=Vaidhyanathan |first3=Ramanathan |last4=Burner |first4=Jake |last5=Taylor |first5=Jared M. |last6=Durekova |first6=Hana |last7=Akhtar |first7=Farid |last8=Mah |first8=Roger K. |last9=Ghaffari-Nik |first9=Omid |last10=Marx |first10=Stefan |last11=Fylstra |first11=Nicholas |last12=Iremonger |first12=Simon S. |last13=Dawson |first13=Karl W. |last14=Sarkar |first14=Partha |last15=Hovington |first15=Pierre |date=2021-12-17 |title=A scalable metal-organic framework as a durable physisorbent for carbon dioxide capture |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abi7281 |journal=Science |volume=374 |issue=6574 |pages=1464–1469 |doi=10.1126/science.abi7281|bibcode=2021Sci...374.1464L |url-access=subscription }} Its robustness and scalability position CALF-20 as a promising material for industrial CO₂ capture and storage, with potential applications in sectors such as cement production.{{Cite journal |last1=Drwęska |first1=Joanna |last2=Roztocki |first2=Kornel |last3=Janiak |first3=Agnieszka M. |date=2025-01-14 |title=Advances in chemistry of CALF-20, a metal–organic framework for industrial gas applications |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/cc/d4cc05744a#:~:text=The%20metal%E2%80%93organic%20framework%20CALF,for%20various%20gas-related%20applications |journal=Chemical Communications |language=en |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=1032–1047 |doi=10.1039/D4CC05744A |pmid=39668774 |issn=1364-548X|url-access=subscription }}

Most MOFs are synthesized through solvothermal methods, but alternative approaches like microwave-assisted, electrochemical, mechanochemical, and sonochemical synthesis also exist.{{Cite journal |last1=Udaya Rajesh |first1=R. |last2=Mathew |first2=Tessa |last3=Kumar |first3=Hemanth |last4=Singhal |first4=Anchal |last5=Thomas |first5=Libi |date=2024-04-01 |title=Metal-organic frameworks: Recent advances in synthesis strategies and applications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1387700324002065#:~:text=MOF%20synthesis%20can%20be%20achieved,microwave%20method,%20and%20ultrasound%20methods |journal=Inorganic Chemistry Communications |volume=162 |pages=112223 |doi=10.1016/j.inoche.2024.112223 |issn=1387-7003|url-access=subscription }} However, traditional MOFs are often unsuitable for in-vivo applications due to potential toxicity from their metal ions and organic linkers.{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=Yuanzhi |last2=Zhang |first2=Wei |last3=Guo |first3=Tao |last4=Zhang |first4=Guoqing |last5=Qin |first5=Wei |last6=Zhang |first6=Liu |last7=Wang |first7=Caifen |last8=Zhu |first8=Weifeng |last9=Yang |first9=Ming |last10=Hu |first10=Xiaoxiao |last11=Singh |first11=Vikramjeet |last12=Wu |first12=Li |last13=Gref |first13=Ruxandra |last14=Zhang |first14=Jiwen |date=2019-01-01 |title=Drug nanoclusters formed in confined nano-cages of CD-MOF: dramatic enhancement of solubility and bioavailability of azilsartan |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211383518303745 |journal=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B |series=SI: Enhancement of dissolution and oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.1016/j.apsb.2018.09.003 |issn=2211-3835|pmc=6361728 }} To address this, green synthesis methods using biocompatible metals (e.g., Ca, K, Ti) and safe organic linkers (e.g., peptides, carbohydrates, amino acids, cyclodextrin derivatives) have been developed to reduce health risks and enable a broader range of applications.{{Cite journal |last1=Rajkumar |first1=T. |last2=Kukkar |first2=Deepak |last3=Kim |first3=Ki-Hyun |last4=Sohn |first4=Jong Ryeul |last5=Deep |first5=Akash |date=2019-04-25 |title=Cyclodextrin-metal–organic framework (CD-MOF): From synthesis to applications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1226086X1831390X |journal=Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry |volume=72 |pages=50–66 |doi=10.1016/j.jiec.2018.12.048 |issn=1226-086X|url-access=subscription }}

Cyclodextrin-based metal-organic frameworks (CD-MOFs), composed of γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) and alkali metal cations, are edible MOFs that can be efficiently synthesized on a large scale from natural carbohydrates.{{Cite journal |last1=Hamedi |first1=Asma |last2=Anceschi |first2=Anastasia |last3=Patrucco |first3=Alessia |last4=Hasanzadeh |first4=Mahdi |date=April 2022 |title=A γ-cyclodextrin-based metal-organic framework (γ-CD-MOF): a review of recent advances for drug delivery application |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34847807/ |journal=Journal of Drug Targeting |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=381–393 |doi=10.1080/1061186X.2021.2012683 |issn=1029-2330 |pmid=34847807}} Due to their biocompatibility and scalability, CD-MOFs have been explored for applications such as drug delivery, CO2 capture, separation/purification, adsorption, sensors, food packaging, electrical conductors, memristors, photocatalysis, and polymerization.{{Cite journal |last1=Rajkumar |first1=T. |last2=Kukkar |first2=Deepak |last3=Kim |first3=Ki-Hyun |last4=Sohn |first4=Jong Ryeul |last5=Deep |first5=Akash |date=2019-04-25 |title=Cyclodextrin-metal–organic framework (CD-MOF): From synthesis to applications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1226086X1831390X |journal=Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry |volume=72 |pages=50–66 |doi=10.1016/j.jiec.2018.12.048 |issn=1226-086X|url-access=subscription }}

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COF-1 (Covalent Organic Framework-1) is the first covalent organic framework. It was synthesized using tetrahedral boronate ester (B–O–B) linkages and biphenyl-based linkers. It is distinguished by its highly crystalline structure and large surface area, making it an excellent material for gas storage and catalysis. As the first COF, COF-1 has played a crucial role in the development of porous organic materials for advanced applications.{{Cite journal |last1=Côté |first1=Adrien P. |last2=Benin |first2=Annabelle I. |last3=Ockwig |first3=Nathan W. |last4=O'Keeffe |first4=Michael |last5=Matzger |first5=Adam J. |last6=Yaghi |first6=Omar M. |date=2005-11-18 |title=Porous, Crystalline, Covalent Organic Frameworks |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1120411 |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5751 |pages=1166–1170 |doi=10.1126/science.1120411|pmid=16293756 |bibcode=2005Sci...310.1166C |url-access=subscription }}

COF-108 is the first three-dimensional (3D) covalent organic framework (COF), featuring a highly ordered and crystalline structure.{{Cite journal |last1=El-Kaderi |first1=Hani M. |last2=Hunt |first2=Joseph R. |last3=Mendoza-Cortés |first3=José L. |last4=Côté |first4=Adrien P. |last5=Taylor |first5=Robert E. |last6=O'Keeffe |first6=Michael |last7=Yaghi |first7=Omar M. |date=2007-04-13 |title=Designed Synthesis of 3D Covalent Organic Frameworks |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1139915 |journal=Science |volume=316 |issue=5822 |pages=268–272 |doi=10.1126/science.1139915|pmid=17431178 |bibcode=2007Sci...316..268E }} It is constructed from tetrahedral boron nodes and pyridine-based linkers, forming an extensive 3D porous network. This architecture provides COF-108 with a significant surface area and open channels, making it a promising material for applications such as hydrogen storage.{{Cite journal |last1=Ke |first1=Zhipeng |last2=Cheng |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Yang |first3=Siyuan |last4=Li |first4=Fan |last5=Ding |first5=Lifeng |date=2017-04-20 |title=Modification of COF-108 via impregnation/functionalization and Li-doping for hydrogen storage at ambient temperature |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360319917303099 |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=42 |issue=16 |pages=11461–11468 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.01.143 |bibcode=2017IJHE...4211461K |issn=0360-3199|doi-access=free }}

COF-505 is a notable covalent organic framework (COF) recognized as the first example of molecular weaving. This innovative design involves a 3D interpenetrated framework, where molecular strands are woven together in a manner similar to fabric, creating a highly ordered and stable structure. The molecular weaving approach enhances the mechanical strength and flexibility of COF-505, opening new possibilities for designing durable and functional porous materials for advanced applications.{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yuzhong |last2=Ma |first2=Yanhang |last3=Zhao |first3=Yingbo |last4=Sun |first4=Xixi |last5=Gándara |first5=Felipe |last6=Furukawa |first6=Hiroyasu |last7=Liu |first7=Zheng |last8=Zhu |first8=Hanyu |last9=Zhu |first9=Chenhui |last10=Suenaga |first10=Kazutomo |last11=Oleynikov |first11=Peter |last12=Alshammari |first12=Ahmad S. |last13=Zhang |first13=Xiang |last14=Terasaki |first14=Osamu |last15=Yaghi |first15=Omar M. |date=2016-01-22 |title=Weaving of organic threads into a crystalline covalent organic framework |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aad4011?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed& |journal=Science |volume=351 |issue=6271 |pages=365–369 |doi=10.1126/science.aad4011|pmid=26798010 |bibcode=2016Sci...351..365L }}

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COF-999 is a covalent organic framework (COF) specifically engineered for efficient carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture from ambient air. Discovered by Omar Yaghi and his team at Berkeley, its structure features olefin linkages and is post-synthetically modified with covalently attached amine initiators, leading to the formation of polyamines within its pores.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Zihui |last2=Ma |first2=Tianqiong |last3=Zhang |first3=Heyang |last4=Chheda |first4=Saumil |last5=Li |first5=Haozhe |last6=Wang |first6=Kaiyu |last7=Ehrling |first7=Sebastian |last8=Giovine |first8=Raynald |last9=Li |first9=Chuanshuai |last10=Alawadhi |first10=Ali H. |last11=Abduljawad |first11=Marwan M. |last12=Alawad |first12=Majed O. |last13=Gagliardi |first13=Laura |last14=Sauer |first14=Joachim |last15=Yaghi |first15=Omar M. |date=November 2024 |title=Carbon dioxide capture from open air using covalent organic frameworks |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08080-x |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=635 |issue=8037 |pages=96–101 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-08080-x |bibcode=2024Natur.635...96Z |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }} This design enables COF-999 to achieve a CO₂ adsorption capacity of 0.96 mmol g⁻¹ under dry conditions and 2.05 mmol g⁻¹ at 50% relative humidity, both at a CO₂ concentration of 400 ppm.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Zihui |last2=Ma |first2=Tianqiong |last3=Zhang |first3=Heyang |last4=Chheda |first4=Saumil |last5=Li |first5=Haozhe |last6=Wang |first6=Kaiyu |last7=Ehrling |first7=Sebastian |last8=Giovine |first8=Raynald |last9=Li |first9=Chuanshuai |last10=Alawadhi |first10=Ali H. |last11=Abduljawad |first11=Marwan M. |last12=Alawad |first12=Majed O. |last13=Gagliardi |first13=Laura |last14=Sauer |first14=Joachim |last15=Yaghi |first15=Omar M. |date=November 2024 |title=Carbon dioxide capture from open air using covalent organic frameworks |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08080-x |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=635 |issue=8037 |pages=96–101 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-08080-x |bibcode=2024Natur.635...96Z |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }} Notably, the material maintains its performance over more than 100 adsorption–desorption cycles in open air, demonstrating exceptional stability. Additionally, COF-999 allows for CO₂ desorption at a relatively low regeneration temperature of 60 °C, which is advantageous for energy efficiency. These properties position COF-999 as a promising material for direct air capture applications, offering a combination of high capacity, rapid kinetics, and durability.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Zihui |last2=Ma |first2=Tianqiong |last3=Zhang |first3=Heyang |last4=Chheda |first4=Saumil |last5=Li |first5=Haozhe |last6=Wang |first6=Kaiyu |last7=Ehrling |first7=Sebastian |last8=Giovine |first8=Raynald |last9=Li |first9=Chuanshuai |last10=Alawadhi |first10=Ali H. |last11=Abduljawad |first11=Marwan M. |last12=Alawad |first12=Majed O. |last13=Gagliardi |first13=Laura |last14=Sauer |first14=Joachim |last15=Yaghi |first15=Omar M. |date=November 2024 |title=Carbon dioxide capture from open air using covalent organic frameworks |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08080-x |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=635 |issue=8037 |pages=96–101 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-08080-x |bibcode=2024Natur.635...96Z |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }}

ZIF-8 (Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8) is composed of zinc (Zn) nodes and imidazolate linkers. It is known for its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, as well as structural flexibility. Due to its porous nature, ZIF-8 is widely studied for applications in gas storage and separation, particularly for CO₂ capture. Its high selectivity for CO₂ over other gases makes it a promising material for carbon capture and environmental remediation.{{Cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Kyo Sung |last2=Ni |first2=Zheng |last3=Côté |first3=Adrien P. |last4=Choi |first4=Jae Yong |last5=Huang |first5=Rudan |last6=Uribe-Romo |first6=Fernando J. |last7=Chae |first7=Hee K. |last8=O'Keeffe |first8=Michael |last9=Yaghi |first9=Omar M. |date=2006-07-05 |title=Exceptional chemical and thermal stability of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=103 |issue=27 |pages=10186–10191 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0602439103 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1502432 |pmid=16798880}}

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Category:Materials