reverse racism

{{Short description|Concept that affirmative action and similar programs constitute anti-white discrimination}}

Reverse racism, sometimes referred to as reverse discrimination,{{r|Yee 2008}} is the concept that affirmative action and similar color-conscious programs for redressing racial inequality are forms of anti-white racism.{{r|Ansell p135}} The concept is often associated with conservative social movements,{{r|Ansell p135|Garner 2017}} and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by Black people and other people of color cause disadvantages for white people.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137}}{{r|Mazzocco p91|Roussell 2019}}

Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence that white Americans are disadvantaged as a group.{{r|empirical evidence}} Racial and ethnic minorities generally lack the ability to damage the interests of whites, who remain the dominant group in the U.S.{{r|Drustrup 2022|Dennis 2004}} Claims of reverse racism tend to ignore such disparities in the exercise of power,{{r|Yee 2008|Bax 2018|Hill p15}} which most sociologists and psychologists include in their definition of racism.{{r|Yee 2008|Drustrup 2022}}

Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative action began to emerge in the 1970s,{{r|Ansell p135|Bonilla-Silva p211}} and have formed part of a racial backlash against social gains by people of color.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|pp=17, 137}} While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent wherever white supremacy has diminished, such as in post-apartheid South Africa.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137}}

United States

=Overview=

The concept of reverse racism in the United States is commonly associated with conservative opposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such as affirmative action. Amy E. Ansell of Emerson College identifies three main claims about reverse racism: (1) that government programs to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" in white men; (2) that racial preferences violate the individual right of equal protection before the law; and (3) that color consciousness itself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism.{{r|Ansell p135}} The concept of reverse racism has also been used in relation to various expressions of hostility, prejudice or discrimination toward white people by members of minority groups.{{r|Cashmore 2004}}

=History=

Concerns that the advancement of African Americans might cause harm to white Americans date back as far as the Reconstruction Era in the context of debates over providing reparations for slavery.{{r|Ansell p135}} Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individual anecdotes, often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white person losing a job to a Black person.{{r|Dennis 2004}}

Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on the racially color-blind view that any preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial group was morally wrong.{{r|Ansell p135}} Sociologist Bob Blauner argues that reverse racism had become the primary meaning of racism among whites by the late 1970s, suggesting that conservatives and centrist liberals in the U.S. had effectively "won the battle over the meaning of racism".{{r|Blauner p23}} Where past race-conscious policies such as Jim Crow have been used to maintain white supremacy, modern programs such as affirmative action aim to reduce racial inequality.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|pp=4, 46}} Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism.{{r|McBride 2005}} For example, sociologist Nathan Glazer argued in his 1975 book Affirmative Discrimination that affirmative action was a form of reverse racism{{sfnp|Mazzocco|2017|p=23}}{{r|Blauner p346}} violating white people's right to equal protection under the law.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=57}} This view was boosted by the Supreme Court's decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), which said that racial quotas for minority students were discriminatory against white people.{{r|McBride 2005}}

Legal cases concerning so-called "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s, for instance Regents of the University of California v. Bakke; Gratz v. Bollinger; and Grutter v. Bollinger (regarding discrimination in higher education admissions) and Ricci v. DeStefano (regarding employment discrimination).{{r|Norton 2011a}} Such cases are rare; out of almost half a million complaints filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) between 1987 and 1994, four percent were about reverse discrimination.{{r|Desmond p197}} Sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva writes that the actual number of reverse discrimination cases filed with the EEOC is quite small, and the vast majority are dismissed as unfounded.{{sfnp|Bonilla-Silva|2010|p=83}} Between 1990 and 1994, courts in the U.S. rejected all reverse discrimination cases as without merit.{{r|Desmond p197}}

Since 2020, conservative activists such as Stephen Miller and Edward Blum have challenged diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs as being discriminatory towards whites. Following the 2023 Supreme Court ruling against race-conscious affirmative action in college admissions, US courts have seen an increase in reverse discrimination claims,{{Cite news |last=Telford |first=Taylor |date=December 27, 2023 |title=2024 might be do-or-die for corporate diversity efforts. Here's why. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/12/27/dei-affirmative-action-legal-challenges-corporate-america/ |access-date=October 8, 2024 |newspaper=The Washington Post |issn=0190-8286 |url-access=limited}}{{Cite news |last=Telford |first=Taylor |date=August 29, 2023 |title=Ex-Morgan Stanley executive alleges reverse discrimination in lawsuit |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/08/29/morgan-stanley-reverse-discrimination-lawsuit-dei-goals-affirmative-action/ |access-date=October 8, 2024 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en-US |url-access=limited}} with some individual plaintiffs being awarded damages against companies such as Starbucks and Novant Health.{{Cite web |last=Guynn |first=Jessica |date=December 20, 2023 |title=DEI under siege: Why more businesses are being accused of 'reverse discrimination' |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/careers/2023/12/20/dei-reverse-discrimination-lawsuits-increase-woke/71923487007/ |access-date=September 17, 2024 |website=USA Today |language=en-US}}

=Public attitudes=

While not empirically supported,{{Multiref2 | {{harvp|Ansell|2013|p=137}}: "Not much sober empirical study has been applied to the subject, but the studies that do exist find little evidence that reverse racism in fact exists." | {{harvp|Garner|2017|p=185}}: "[T]here is no evidence that [reverse racism] is a social fact, or that a pattern of disadvantageous outcomes for white people qua white people exists." | {{harvp|Spanierman|Cabrera|2014|p=16}}: "While there is no empirical basis for white people experiencing 'reverse racism', this view is held by a large number of Americans." | {{harvp|Bax|2018|p=117}}: "Many Americans{{emdash}}including some people of color{{emdash}}staunchly believe in the existence of reverse racism, or racism against whites. The evidence to support this perception of 'whiteness as disadvantage' is highly suspect." | {{harvp|Roussell|Henne|Glover|Willits|2019|pp=E6–E7}}: "Claims of reverse racism are often deployed to undermine efforts toward racial equity, particularly affirmative action measures, but evidence for these claims has been rigorously debunked"}} belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States,{{r|Bax 2018|Spanierman p16}} primarily among white people.{{r|Roussell 2019}} Psychological studies with white Americans have shown that belief in anti-white discrimination is linked with support for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S.{{sfnp|Mazzocco|2017|p=85}}{{r|Wilkins 2013a}} as well as the belief that "hard work" and meritocracy explain any racial disparities.{{r|Cyr p24|Wilkins 2013b}} The idea that whites have become a socially disadvantaged group has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as the Tea Party and support for Donald Trump.{{r|Garner 2017}} Conservatives in the U.S. tend to believe that affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism and meritocracy.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=17}} Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "angry white male"{{r|Ansell p135}} and a backlash against government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|pp=17, 137}}

The perception of decreasing anti-Black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination.{{r|Mazzocco p91}} A survey in Pennsylvania in the mid-1990s found that most white respondents (80%) thought it was likely that a white worker might lose a job or a promotion to a less qualified Black worker, while most Black respondents (57%) thought this was unlikely.{{r|Feagin p127}} A majority (57%) of white respondents to a 2016 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute said they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against Black people, while only a minority of African Americans (29%) and Hispanics (38%) agreed.{{r|Massie 2016|Jones 2016}} Researchers at Tufts University and Harvard report that as of the early 2010s many white Americans feel as though they suffer the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary.{{r|Spanierman p16|Fletcher 2014|Ingraham 2017}} Whereas Black respondents see anti-Black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tend to think it has largely disappeared, to the point that they see prejudice against white people as being more prevalent.{{r|Norton 2011a|Norton 2011b}} Among white respondents since the 1990s:

{{quote|Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by nearly any metric [...] statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White Americans.{{harvp|Norton|Sommers|2011a|p=215}}, quoted in {{harvp|Garner|2017|p=185}}}}

Bonilla-Silva describes the "anti–affirmative action and 'reverse racism' mentality" that has become dominant since the 1980s as part of a "mean-spirited white racial animus".{{r|Bonilla-Silva p211}} He argues that this results from a new dominant ideology of "color-blind racism", which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, thereby allowing it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform.{{sfnp|Garner|2017|p=186}} Journalist Vann R. Newkirk II writes that white people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since the civil rights movement of the 1960s.{{r|Newkirk 2017}} Using data from the 2006 Portraits of American Life Study, Damon Mayrl and Aliya Saperstein find that whites who claim to have experienced racial discrimination are "more likely to be racially self-aware, to be pessimistic about the future, and to have a recent history of unemployment compared to their non-discrimination-reporting peers".{{Cite journal |last1=Mayrl |first1=Damon |last2=Saperstein |first2=Aliya |date=2013 |title=When white people report racial discrimination: The role of region, religion, and politics |url= |journal=Social Science Research |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=742–754 |doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.007 |pmid=23521992 |issn=0049-089X}}{{Primary source inline|date=September 2024 |reason=primary research study}}

=Scholarly analysis=

While there has been little empirical study on the subject of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137}} Race relations in the United States have been historically shaped by European imperialism and long-standing oppression of Blacks by whites,{{r|Cashmore 2004}} who remain the dominant group.{{r|Drustrup 2022|Dennis 2004}} Such disparities in power and authority are seen by scholars as an essential component of racism; in this view, isolated examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not constitute racism.{{r|Yee 2008|McKinney p147}} In a widely reprinted article, legal scholar Stanley Fish wrote that {{" '}}Reverse racism' is a cogent description of affirmative action only if one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it".{{r|Fish}}

Sociologist Ellis Cashmore writes that the terms reverse racism and reverse discrimination imply that racism is defined solely by individual beliefs and prejudices, ignoring the material relations between different groups.{{r|Cashmore 2004}} Sociologist Joe Feagin argues that the term reverse discrimination is an oxymoron in the context of U.S. race relations in that it obscures the "central issue of systemic racism" disadvantaging people of color.{{harvp|Feagin|2001|p=250|ps=.}} Cited in {{harvp|Cashmore|2004|p=373|ps=.}} Critical race theorist David Theo Goldberg says the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and contemporary reality of racial discrimination.{{r|Pinder 2015}} Sociologist Karyn McKinney writes, "most claims that whites are victimized {{em|as whites}} rely on false parallels, as they ignore the power differences between whites and people of color at the group level".{{harvp|McKinney|2005|p=146|ps=.}} Cited in {{harvp|Bax|2018|p=117|ps=.}} Anthropologist Jane H. Hill argues that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence of white privilege and power in society.{{r|Hill p15}} Linguist Mary Bucholtz says the concept of reverse racism, which she calls racial reversal, "runs counter to or ignores empirically observable racial asymmetries regarding material resources and structural power".{{r|Bucholtz 2011}}

According to sociologist Rutledge Dennis, individual members of minority groups in the United States "may be racists" toward white people, but cannot wield institutional power or shape the opportunities available to the majority as the white majority does in relation to minorities.{{r|Dennis 2004}} Sociologists Matthew Desmond and Mustafa Emirbayer distinguish between institutional racism and interpersonal racism,{{sfnp|Desmond|Emirbayer|2010|p=30}} arguing that while "members of all racial groups can harbor negative attitudes toward members of other groups", there is no "black institutional racism" or "reverse institutional racism" since people of color have not created a socially ingrained system of racial domination over white people.{{sfnp|Desmond|Emirbayer|2010|p=32}} Psychologist and educator Beverly Daniel Tatum argues that racial bigotry or prejudices held by people of color are not comparable to white racism since "there is no systematic cultural and institutional support or sanction" for them.{{r|Tatum p129}} Tatum writes, "In my view, reserving the term racist only for behaviors committed by Whites in the context of a White-dominated society is a way of acknowledging the ever-present power differential afforded Whites by the culture and institutions that make up the system of advantage and continue to reinforce notions of White superiority."{{cite book |last1=Tatum |first1=Beverly Daniel |editor1-last=Rothenberg |editor1-first=Paula S. |title=Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study |date=2004 |publisher=Worth Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7167-5515-9 |page=129 |edition=6th |chapter=Defining Racism: {{'}}Can We Talk?{{'}}{{thin space}}}} Cited in {{harvp|McKinney|2005|p=147|ps=.}}

Promotion of substantive equality, for example through affirmative action, may violate formal equality of opportunity according to Richard Arneson.{{cite encyclopedia | last=Arneson | first=Richard | title=Equality of Opportunity §2.4 Affirmative Action |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=8 October 2002 | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/equal-opportunity/#AffAct}} Differences between equality concepts are also called Dilemma of difference.{{cite journal | last=Minow | first=Martha | title=Learning to Live with the Dilemma of Difference: Bilingual and Special Education | journal=Law and Contemporary Problems | publisher=Duke University School of Law | volume=48 | issue=2 | year=1985 | issn=0023-9186 | jstor=1191571 | pages=157–211| doi=10.2307/1191571 }}

South Africa

{{Undue weight|section|date=March 2019|to=individual allegations of reverse racism rather than the broader social impact of the term/concept}}

The concept of reverse racism has been used by some white South Africans concerned about "reverse apartheid" following the end of white-supremacist rule.{{sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137}} Affirmative action in South Africa's white-dominated civil service was also met with charges of "reverse racism".{{cite magazine |first1=Susan |last1=De Villiers |first2=Stefan |last2=Simanowitz |date=March 2012 |title=South Africa: The ANC at 100 |magazine=The Contemporary Review |volume=294 |issue=1704 |pages=39–45 |issn=0010-7565 |id={{ProQuest|1013463231}} |quote=[A]ffirmative action and black economic empowerment were controversial and often misrepresented. In a society in which the greater majority of desk and management jobs were held by whites, there was a clear need for action to move towards a more level job market. Yet many whites have persisted in claiming 'reverse racism'.}}

Nelson Mandela in 1995 described "racism in reverse" when Black students demonstrated in favor of changing the racial makeup of staff at South African universities.{{cite news |last1=MacGregor |first1=Karen |title=Mandela slams 'reverse racism' |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/mandela-slams-reverse-racism/97135.article?storyCode=97135§ioncode=26 |work=Times Higher Education |publication-place=London |date=March 24, 1995 |issn=0049-3929 |url-access=registration |access-date=July 18, 2022 |archive-date=July 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706154541/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/search?e=404&search=story |url-status=live}} Students denied Mandela's claim and argued that a great deal of ongoing actual racism persisted from apartheid.{{cite news |first=Abiola |last=Sinclair |title=Media Watch: All is not well, disappointments, racial clashes |newspaper=New York Amsterdam News |date=September 16, 1995 |page=26 |issn=1059-1818 |quote=The students maintained that the university was living in the apartheid past with the upper echelons reserved for whites. The students are demanding that some jobs be reserved for Blacks. AZASM had denied the charge of reverse racism. They maintain it is unfair for thousands of Black teachers to be out of work while white teachers sit up in good jobs in Black schools.}}

Mixed-race South Africans have also sometimes claimed to be victimized by reverse racism of the new government.{{cite news |first=Lydia |last=Polgreen |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/world/for-mixed-race-south-africans-equity-is-elusive.html |title=For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity Is Elusive |work=The New York Times |date=July 27, 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331044842/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/world/for-mixed-race-south-africans-equity-is-elusive.html |archive-date=March 31, 2013 |url-status=live |url-access=limited}} Similar accusations have been leveled by Indian and Afrikaner groups, who feel that they have not been dominant historically but now suffer from discrimination by the government.{{cite news |last1=Harman |first1=Dana |title=South Africans try to 'beat' a segregated past |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0926/p01s03-woaf.html |work=Christian Science Monitor |date=September 26, 2002 |page=1 |issn=2166-3262 |url-access=limited |quote=But old feelings die hard, and some groups{{dash}}in particular the Afrikaner and Indian minorities{{dash}}even complain that they are now being targeted by a reverse racism.}}

Helen Suzman, a prominent white anti-apartheid politician, charged the African National Congress and the Mbeki administration with reverse racism since Mandela's departure in 1999.{{cite news |last1=Calvert |first1=Scott |title=Against apartheid, at odds with blacks |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2005-05-14-0505140451-story.html |work=The Baltimore Sun |date=May 13, 2005 |issn=1930-8965 |access-date=July 18, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002831/https://playlist.stnvideo.com/player/data/index.php?cmd=loadInitial&session=eYLbeGfVHnC6zL_S&instance=198351914&version=7.33.0-A&age=240907&ESG_key=WczsESEJ&type=FULL&EXTREF=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2005/05/14/against-apartheid-at-odds-with-blacks/&REF=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2005/05/14/against-apartheid-at-odds-with-blacks/&ogSet=1 |url-status=live}}

South African critics of the "reverse racism" concept use similar arguments as those employed by Americans.{{cite journal |first=Yolisa |last=Dalamba |title=Towards An African Renaissance: Identity, Race And Representation In Post-Apartheid South Africa |journal=Journal of Cultural Studies |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=40–61 |year=2000 |doi=10.4314/jcs.v2i1.6231 |issn=1595-0956}}{{Verify source|date=March 2019}}

References

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy Elizabeth |title=Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-33794-6 |pages=135–136 |quote=Reverse racism is a concept commonly associated with conservative opposition to affirmative action and other color-conscious victories of the civil rights movement in the United States and anti-racist movements abroad. While traditional forms of racism involve prejudice and discrimination on the part of whites against blacks, reverse racism is alleged to be a new form of anti-white racism practiced by blacks and/or the so-called civil rights establishment (alternately referred to as the anti-racism industry).}}

{{cite journal |last1=Bax |first1=Anna |title='The C-Word' Meets 'the N-Word': The Slur-Once-Removed and the Discursive Construction of 'Reverse Racism' |journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology |date=2018 |volume=28 |issue=2 |page=117 |doi=10.1111/jola.12185 |s2cid=4768398 |issn=1548-1395}}

{{cite book |last1=Blauner |first1=Bob |editor1-last=Pincus |editor1-first=Fred L. |editor2-last=Ehrlich |editor2-first=Howard J. |title=Race And Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views On Prejudice, Discrimination, And Ethnoviolence |date=1994 |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=0-8133-1661-8 |page=23 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/raceethnicconfli0000unse/page/23/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Talking Past Each Other: Black and White Languages of Race}}

{{cite book |last1=Blauner |first1=Bob |title=Black Lives, White Lives: Three Decades of Race Relations in America |date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-06261-0 |page=346 |url=https://archive.org/details/blackliveswhitel0000blau/page/n6/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}

{{cite book |last1=Bonilla-Silva |first1=Eduardo |title=Racism Without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States |date=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-0218-4 |page=211 |edition=3rd |url=https://archive.org/details/racismwithoutrac0000boni/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}

{{cite journal |last1=Bucholtz |first1=Mary |title='It's different for guys': Gendered narratives of racial conflict among white California youth |journal=Discourse & Society |date=2011 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=385–402 |doi=10.1177/0957926510395832 |s2cid=145109978 |issn=0957-9265 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2d18612v |access-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002907/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2d18612v |url-status=live}} Cited in {{harvp|Bax|2018|p=117|ps=.}}

{{cite book |editor-last=Cashmore |editor-first=Ellis |title=Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-13-444706-0 |page=373 |chapter=Reverse Racism/Discrimination |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofra0000cash/page/373/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration}}

{{cite book |last=Cyr |first=Lauren |editor1-last=Kim Gertz |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Huang |editor2-first=B. |editor3-last=Cyr |editor3-first=L. |title=Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education and Societal Contexts: International and Interdisciplinary Approaches |date=2018 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-31-970174-5 |page=24 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-70175-2 |chapter=Literature Review: Interdisciplinary Findings on Diversity and Inclusion}}

{{cite book |last=Dennis |first=Rutledge M. |editor1-last=Kuper |editor1-first=A. |editor2-last=Kuper |editor2-first=J. |title=The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location= |pages=843–845 |isbn=978-1-13-435970-7 |edition=3rd |chapter=Racism}}

{{cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Matthew |last2=Emirbayer |first2=Mustafa |title=Racial Domination, Racial Progress: The Sociology of Race in America |date=2010 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-297051-7 |page=197 |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/racialdomination0000desm/page/n2/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}

{{Cite journal |last1=Drustrup |first1=David |last2=Liu |first2=William Ming |last3=Rigg |first3=Thomas |last4=Davis |first4=Katelynn |date=2022 |title=Investigating the white racial equilibrium and the power-maintenance of whiteness |journal=Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=961–988 |doi=10.1111/asap.12321 |doi-access=free |issn=1530-2415 |quote=[M]ost scholars within critical race theory, psychology, and sociology include notions of power in their definition of racism [...] This means that only the dominant group (i.e., whites in U.S. society) can enforce prejudiced and discriminatory laws, behavior, and cultural ideologies onto the minoritized group (i.e., people of Color).}}

{{cite book |last1=Feagin |first1=Joe R. |title=Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-4159-2532-7 |page=127 |url=https://archive.org/details/racistamericaroo0000feag/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}

Fish, quoted in {{cite book |last1=Pincus |first1=Fred L. |title=Reverse Discrimination: Dismantling the Myth |date=2003 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1-58-826203-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/reversediscrimin0000pinc/page/68/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration |pages=68–69}}

{{cite news |last=Fletcher |first=Michael A. |title=Whites think discrimination against whites is a bigger problem than bias against blacks |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/10/08/white-people-think-racial-discrimination-in-america-is-basically-over |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 8, 2014 |url-access=limited |access-date=August 21, 2017 |archive-date=August 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821211826/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/10/08/white-people-think-racial-discrimination-in-america-is-basically-over/ |url-status=live}}

{{cite book |last=Garner |first=Steve |title=Racisms: An Introduction |date=2017 |publisher=SAGE Publications |location=London |isbn=978-1-5264-1285-0 |edition=2nd |page=185 |chapter=New Racisms?}}

{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Jane H. |title=The Everyday Language of White Racism |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5669-4 |page=15}}

{{cite news |last=Ingraham |first=Christopher |title=White Trump voters think they face more discrimination than blacks. The Trump administration is listening |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/08/02/white-trump-voters-think-they-face-more-discrimination-than-blacks-the-trump-administration-is-listening |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 2, 2017 |url-access=limited}}

{{cite report |last1=Jones |first1=Robert P. |display-authors=etal |title=How Immigration and Concerns About Cultural Changes Are Shaping the 2016 Election: Findings from the 2016 PRRI/Brookings Immigration Survey |date=June 23, 2016 |publisher=Public Religion Research Institute |location=Washington, D.C. |page=2 |url=http://www.prri.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/PRRI-Brookings-2016-Immigration-survey-report.pdf |access-date=February 8, 2019 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002812/http://www.prri.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/PRRI-Brookings-2016-Immigration-survey-report.pdf |url-status=live}}

{{cite news |author=Massie, Victoria M. |title=Americans are split on "reverse racism". That still doesn't mean it exists. |work=Vox |date=June 29, 2016 |url=https://www.vox.com/2016/6/29/12045772/reverse-racism-affirmative-action |access-date=September 18, 2016 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002927/https://www.vox.com/2016/6/29/12045772/reverse-racism-affirmative-action |url-status=live}}

{{cite book |last=Mazzocco |first=Philip J. |title=The Psychology of Racial Colorblindness: A Critical Review |date=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-1-13-759967-4 |page=91 |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-59302-3}}

{{cite book |last=McBride |first=David |editor1-last=Carlisle |editor1-first=Rodney P. |title=Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Volume 1: The Left |date=2005 |publisher=SAGE Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-1-41-290409-4 |page=8 |chapter=Affirmative Action}}

{{cite book |last1=McKinney |first1=Karyn D. |title=Being White: Stories of Race and Racism |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-4159-3572-2 |page=147 |url=https://archive.org/details/beingwhitestorie0000mcki/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}

{{cite magazine |first=Vann R. II |last=Newkirk |date=August 5, 2017 |title=How The Myth of Reverse Racism Drives the Affirmative Action Debate |magazine=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/08/myth-of-reverse-racism/535689/ |access-date=March 18, 2018 |url-access=limited |archive-date=March 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318120908/https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/08/myth-of-reverse-racism/535689/ |url-status=live}}

{{cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=Michael I. |last2=Sommers |first2=Samuel R. |title=Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing |date=2011a |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=215–18 |pmid=26168512 |doi=10.1177/1745691611406922 |s2cid=10616480 |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/norton%20sommers%20whites%20see%20racism_ca92b4be-cab9-491d-8a87-cf1c6ff244ad.pdf |issn=1745-6924 |access-date=September 10, 2023 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002813/https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/norton%20sommers%20whites%20see%20racism_ca92b4be-cab9-491d-8a87-cf1c6ff244ad.pdf |url-status=live}} See also: {{block indent|em=1|{{cite press release |author= |date=May 23, 2011 |title=Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks |website=TuftsNow |url=https://now.tufts.edu/2011/05/23/whites-believe-they-are-victims-racism-more-often-blacks |access-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002815/https://now.tufts.edu/2011/05/23/whites-believe-they-are-victims-racism-more-often-blacks |url-status=live}} }}

{{cite news |last1=Norton |first1=Michael I. |last2=Sommers |first2=Samuel R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/05/22/is-anti-white-bias-a-problem/jockeying-for-stigma |title=Jockeying for Stigma |work=The New York Times |date=May 23, 2011b |url-access=limited |access-date=February 20, 2017 |archive-date=September 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907002837/https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/05/22/is-anti-white-bias-a-problem/jockeying-for-stigma |url-status=live}}

{{cite book |last=Pinder |first=Sherrow O. |title=Colorblindness, Post-raciality, and Whiteness in the United States |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |pages= |isbn=978-1-13-743488-3 |doi=10.1057/9781137431103}}{{page needed|date=March 2023}}

{{cite journal |last1=Roussell |first1=Aaron |last2=Henne |first2=Kathryn |last3=Glover |first3=Karen S. |last4=Willits |first4=Dale |title=Impossibility of a 'Reverse Racism' Effect: A Rejoinder to James, James, and Vila |journal=Criminology & Public Policy |date=2019 |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=E6 |doi=10.1111/1745-9133.12289 |doi-access=free |issn=1745-9133 |quote=Reverse racism is the idea that the Civil Rights Movement not only ended the subordination of communities of color in all aspects of social life but also simultaneously led to a similar subordination of Whites. This idea is primarily supported by Whites who perceive gains in racial equity as losses in White status}}

{{cite book |last1=Spanierman |first1=Lisa |last2=Cabrera |first2=Nolan |editor1=Watson, V. |editor2=Howard-Wagner, D. |editor3=Spanierman, L. |title=Unveiling Whiteness in the Twenty-First Century: Global Manifestations, Transdisciplinary Interventions |date=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-73-919297-9 |page=16 |chapter=The Emotions of White Racism and Antiracism}}

{{cite journal |last1=Wilkins |first1=C. L. |last2=Kaiser |first2=C. R. |title=Racial Progress as Threat to the Status Hierarchy: Implications for Perceptions of Anti-White Bias |journal=Psychological Science |date=2013 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=439–46 |doi=10.1177/0956797613508412 |pmid=24343099 |s2cid=6934961 |issn=1467-9280}}

{{cite journal |last1=Wilkins |first1=Clara L. |last2=Wellman |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Kaiser |first3=Cheryl R. |title=Status legitimizing beliefs predict positivity toward Whites who claim anti-White bias |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |date=2013 |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=1114–19 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.017 |issn=1096-0465}}

{{cite book |last=Yee |first=June Ying |editor-last=Shaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 3 |date=2008 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-41-292694-2 |pages=1118–19 |chapter=Racism, Types of |quote=[T]he term reverse racism (or reverse discrimination) has been coined to describe situations where typically advantaged people are relegated to inferior positions or denied social opportunities to benefit racial and ethnic minorities, or, in some instances, women. However, scholars argue that a critical component of racism is the broad exercise of authority and power and that isolated instances of favoring the disadvantaged over the privileged cannot be seen as constituting racism.}}

}}

External links

[http://www.eeoc.gov/significant-eeoc-racecolor-casescovering-private-and-federal-sectors#reverse List of cases involving allegations of reverse discrimination], U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Category:Conservatism

Category:Majority–minority relations

Category:Opposition to affirmative action

Category:Political terminology in South Africa

Category:Political terminology of the United States

Category:Race in the United States