short bone

{{Infobox bone

| Name = Short bone

| Latin = os breve

| Image = RightHumanPosteriorDistalRadiusUlnaCarpals.jpg

| Caption = Carpus (bones of wrist) is classified as short bone.

| Image2 = Blausen 0229 ClassificationofBones.png

}}

Short bones are designated as those bones that are more or less equal in length, width, and thickness. They include the tarsals in the ankle and the carpals in the wrist. They are one of five types of bones: short, long, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Most short bones are named according to their shape as they exhibit a variety of complex morphological features (They can be cuboid, lenticular, trapezoidal, etc.){{cite book |last1=Bilo |first1=Rob A. C. |last2=Loeve |first2=Arjo A. J. |last3=Robben |first3=Simon G. F. |last4=van Rijn |first4=Rick R. |title=Forensic Aspects of Paediatric Fractures: Differentiating Accidental Trauma from Child Abuse |date=2023 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-031-12041-1 |pages=23–43 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-12041-1_2 |language=en |chapter=General Aspects of Fractures in Children|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-12041-1_2 }}{{cite book |last1=De Buffrénil |first1=V |last2=De Ricqlès |first2=A |last3=Zylberberg |first3=L |last4=Padian |first4=K |title=Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology |date=2021 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group |location=Boca Raton London New York |doi=10.1201/9781351189590 |isbn=978-0815392880 |s2cid=236406115 |edition=1st |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.1201/9781351189590/vertebrate-skeletal-histology-paleohistology-vivian-de-buffr%C3%A9nil-armand-de-ricql%C3%A8s-louise-zylberberg-kevin-padian}}

Some authors state that short bones are only located in the carpals and tarsals.{{cite journal |last1=Peate |first1=Ian |title=Anatomy and physiology, 5. The musculoskeletal system |journal=British Journal of Healthcare Assistants |date=2 January 2018 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=6–9 |doi=10.12968/bjha.2018.12.1.6}} The metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges are considered long bones as they have a shaft (tubular diaphysis), but since they're smaller than typical long bones, they're called “miniature, small or short" long bones.{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=V |title=General Anatomy with Systemic Anatomy, Radiological Anatomy, Medical Genetics |date=12 May 2020 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-81-312-6244-3 |page=69 |edition=3rd |url=https://shop.elsevier.com/books/general-anatomy-with-systemic-anatomy-radiological-anatomy-medical-genetics-3rd-updated-edition/singh/978-81-312-6243-6 |language=en}} Nevertheless, others consider the patellae and other sesamoid bones, the vertebral bodies, the bones of the skull base and even the phalanges to be short bones.

Structure

The carpus and tarsus consist of cancellous tissue covered by a thin crust of compact substance.{{cite book |last1=Gray |first1=Henry |last2=Lewis |first2=Warren Harmon |title=Anatomy of the human body |date=1918 |publisher=Philadelphia : Lea & Febiger |edition=20th |url=https://archive.org/stream/anatomyofhumanbo1918gray#page/79/mode/2up}} Short bones are specialized to provide support in areas of the skeleton that are subjected to high forces or need to be very compact and where strength and stability are more important than range of motion. Short bones are characterized by their multiple articular surfaces and their tendency to form movable joints with adjacent bones. The articular surfaces of short bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, similar to long bones. The outer surface of the bone, except for the articular surfaces, is covered by the periosteum.{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Michael H. |last2=Pawlina |first2=Wojciech |title=Histology: a text and atlas; with correlated cell and molecular biology |date=2016 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1451187427 |edition=Seventh}} Short bones have no clear diaphysis (bone shaft) and metaphysis and have poor vascular supply.

File:Gray336.png

Development

Both short and long bones undergo endochondral ossification during development. In this process, bone is formed from an initial cartilaginous model and this model is then gradually replaced by bone. Despite sharing a common cellular origin, short and long bones have different structural features.{{Citation|last1=Cowan|first1=PT|title=Anatomy, Bones|date=2023|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537199//|work=StatPearls|place=Treasure Island, Florida (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=30725884|last2=Kahai|first2=P}}

Long bones have epiphyseal growth plates, where chondrocytes, stacked on top of each other, form longitudinal columns that are responsible for longitudinal growth of the bone. Long bones also have secondary ossification centers, in which cell columns are arranged in a radial pattern from the center like spokes on a wheel and cartilage-to-bone replacement starts in the center and extends centrifugally outwards.{{cite book |last1=Standring |first1=S |title=Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice; [get full access and more at ExpertConsult.com] |date=2016 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Philadelphia, Pa. |isbn=978-0702052309 |edition=41.}}

File:SOC001.jpg highlights the formation of both primary and secondary ossification centers. In the upper right region, the primary center reveals longitudinally arranged cell columns, while the lower right region showcases the secondary center, characterized by radially oriented cell columns.]]

File:SOC002.jpg (EGP). The proliferative zone (pz) and hypertrophic/calcification zone (hz) are clearly discernible within the EGP. Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining; scale bar, 1000 μm.]]

Contrary to long bones, the carpals and tarsals typically lack epiphyseal growth plates, hence lacking longitudinal growth and they undergo ossification radially, similar to secondary ossification centers in long bones.{{cite journal |last1=Kjosness |first1=KM |last2=Hines |first2=JE |last3=Lovejoy |first3=CO |last4=Reno |first4=PL |title=The pisiform growth plate is lost in humans and supports a role for Hox in growth plate formation. |journal=Journal of Anatomy |date=November 2014 |volume=225 |issue=5 |pages=527–38 |doi=10.1111/joa.12235 |pmid=25279687|pmc=4292754}}{{cite journal |last1=Reno |first1=Philip L. |last2=Mcburney |first2=Denise L. |last3=Lovejoy |first3=C. Owen |last4=Horton |first4=Walter E. |title=Ossification of the mouse metatarsal: Differentiation and proliferation in the presence/absence of a defined growth plate |journal=The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology |date=January 2006 |volume=288A |issue=1 |pages=104–118 |doi=10.1002/ar.a.20268 |pmid=16342215 |language=en |issn=1552-4884|doi-access=free }}{{cite book |last1=Francillon-Vieillot |first1=H. |last2=de Buffrénil |first2=V. |last3=Castanet |first3=J. |last4=Géraudie |first4=J. |last5=Meunier |first5=F.J. |last6=Sire |first6=J. Y. |last7=Zylberberg |first7=L. |last8=de Ricqlès |first8=A. |title=Skeletal Biomineralization: Patterns, Processes and Evolutionary Trends |chapter=Microstructure and Mineralization of Vertebrate Skeletal Tissues |series=Short Courses in Geology |date=22 March 2013 |pages=175–234 |doi=10.1029/SC005p0175|isbn=9781118667279 }} As a result, short bones usually develop from a single ossification nucleus, while long bones usually develop from multiple ossification nuclei.{{cite journal |last1=Putz |first1=R |last2=Boszczyk |first2=B |last3=Milz |first3=S |title=How the Ends of Bones Evolve and What They Do: The Anatomical and Biomechanical Perspective. |journal=Seminars in Musculoskeletal Radiology |date=October 2019 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=467–476 |doi=10.1055/s-0039-1693977 |pmid=31556082|s2cid=203437965 }}

Clinical significance

Short bones are more prone to nonunion, malunion or osteonecrosis in case of fractures due to their tenuous vascular supply leading to lower healing potential. In contrast, the mid-diaphysis of the femur has a robust vascular supply from the surrounding muscle, and typically heals relatively quickly and reliably.{{cite journal |last1=Nicksic |first1=PJ |last2=Donnelly |first2=DT |last3=Verma |first3=N |last4=Setiz |first4=AJ |last5=Shoffstall |first5=AJ |last6=Ludwig |first6=KA |last7=Dingle |first7=AM |last8=Poore |first8=SO |title=Electrical Stimulation of Acute Fractures: A Narrative Review of Stimulation Protocols and Device Specifications. |journal=Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology |date=2022 |volume=10 |pages=879187 |doi=10.3389/fbioe.2022.879187 |pmid=35721861|pmc=9201474 |doi-access=free }}{{CC-notice|cc=by4}} This risk of diminished healing of short bone fractures increases in diabetic patients, probably due to diabetic peripheral neuropathy and microvascular dysfunction.{{cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Zi-chuan |last2=Zeng |first2=Wei-nan |last3=Rong |first3=Xiao |last4=Liang |first4=Zhi-min |last5=Zhou |first5=Zong-ke |title=Do patients with diabetes have an increased risk of impaired fracture healing? A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=ANZ Journal of Surgery |date=July 2020 |volume=90 |issue=7–8 |pages=1259–1264 |doi=10.1111/ans.15878 |pmid=32255244 |s2cid=215408852 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ans.15878 |language=en |issn=1445-1433|url-access=subscription }}

References

Category:Skeletal system