sibling abuse

Sibling physical abuse is defined as a sibling deliberately causing violence to another sibling.{{Cite journal|last1=Kiselica|first1=Mark S.|last2=Morrill-Richards|first2=Mandy|date=2007|title=Sibling Maltreatment: The Forgotten Abuse|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00457.x|journal=Journal of Counseling & Development|language=en|volume=85|issue=2|pages=148–160|doi=10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00457.x|access-date=2022-02-23|archive-date=2022-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223022630/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00457.x|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} The abuse can be inflicted with shoving, hitting, slapping, kicking, biting, pinching, scratching, and hair-pulling. Sibling physical abuse is more common than peer bullying and other forms of family abuse, such as spousal or child abuse, though for a multitude of reasons, it is very difficult to calculate exact prevalence rates. Even when sibling abuse is recognized it remains heavily under-reported, due to the lack of resources provided to families, such as child protective services and mandatory reporters.{{Cite journal|last1=Stutey|first1=Diane|last2=Clemens|first2=Elysia V.|date=2014|title=Hidden Abuse Within the Home: Recognizing and Responding to Sibling Abuse|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2156759X0001800119|journal=Professional School Counseling|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=2156759X0001800|doi=10.1177/2156759X0001800119|s2cid=219962584|issn=1096-2409|access-date=2022-02-23|archive-date=2022-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223051245/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2156759X0001800119|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Professional childcare providers have considerably different definitions of the term, and lack a system to track reports. Sibling physical abuse persists from childhood through adulthood, with prevalence rates varying across studies, though its intensity and frequency declines as the victim and/or perpetrator grow up.

Sibling aggression is somewhat common even in families that could not be classified as pervasively abusive, with 37% of 498 children committing at least one act of serious abuse during the previous year; in abusive families, 100% of children committed at least one act of serious abuse.Hotaling, G. T., Straus, M. A., & Lincoln, A. J. (1990). Intrafamily violence and crime and violence outside the family. In M. A. Straus and R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical Violence in American Families (pp. 431–470). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books In Pakistani immigrant families in the UK, siblings have the highest proportion of physical abuse compared to other family members, with 35% being done by siblings, compared to 33% by mothers and 19% by fathers.{{Cite web|url=http://shura.shu.ac.uk/602/1/fulltext.pdf|title=Disciplining, Chastisement and Physical Child Abuse: Perceptions and Attitudes of the British Pakistani Community|access-date=2010-04-10|archive-date=2011-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320232734/http://shura.shu.ac.uk/602/1/fulltext.pdf|url-status=live}}

Several studies show that sisters are more likely to be victimized by brothers than vice versa.{{cite journal | last1 = Graham-Bermann | first1 = S. A. | last2 = Cutler | first2 = S. E. | year = 1994 | title = The Brother-Sister Questionnaire: Psychometric assessment and discrimination of well-functioning from dysfunctional relationships | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-psychology_1994-06_8_2/page/224 | journal = Journal of Family Psychology | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 224–238 | doi = 10.1037/0893-3200.8.2.224 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Finkelhor | first1 = D. | last2 = Baron | first2 = L. | year = 1986 | title = Risk factors for child sexual abuse | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 43–71 | doi = 10.1177/088626086001001004 | s2cid = 145646774 }} Additionally, age is also a contributing factor to sibling abuse, where older siblings are more likely to abuse the younger siblings.{{Cite journal|last=Meyers|first=Amy|date=2017|title=Lifting the veil: The lived experience of sibling abuse|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473325015612143|journal=Qualitative Social Work|language=en|volume=16|issue=3|pages=333–350|doi=10.1177/1473325015612143|s2cid=146886153|issn=1473-3250|access-date=2022-02-23|archive-date=2022-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223051250/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473325015612143|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

Psychological abuse among siblings is even more difficult to identify. Psychological abuse in siblings can be identified by both the frequency and intensity of harmful interaction. These interactions can include ridicule to express contempt, as well as degradation towards the other's self-esteem. Adults, such as the parents or professional care providers have difficulty differentiating between psychological aggression and abuse because it is difficult to identify when the balance of power is not evenly distributed. Hence, the consequences of the aggression are not only injury, but also control or domination of one sibling over the other.

Although it has been found to be the most prevalent type of abuse in sibling conflict, prevalence rates are difficult to calculate, due to the difficulty in differentiating aggression from abuse. Whipple and Finton{{cite journal | last1 = Whipple | first1 = E. | last2 = Finton | first2 = S. | year = 1995 | title = Psychological maltreatment by siblings: An unrecognized form of abuse | url = https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01876209 | journal = Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 135–146 | doi = 10.1007/BF01876209 | s2cid = 144194464 | access-date = 2020-02-13 | archive-date = 2024-06-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240601141120/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01876209 | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}{{Who|date=October 2024}} report that "Psychological maltreatment between siblings is one of the most common, yet often under-recognized forms of child abuse." Several researchers have found negative psychological, academic, and social consequences to be related to sibling aggression and abuse; however, causal inference requires more study. One study found that adult sibling abuse survivors have much higher rates of emotional cutoff (34%) with brothers and sisters than what is evident in the general population (<6%).{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223843633|title=Treating sibling abuse families|last1=Caffaro|first1=John|last2=Conn-Caffaro|first2=Allison|date=2005-07-01|volume=10|access-date=2018-03-08|archive-date=2024-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601141124/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223843633_Treating_sibling_abuse_families|url-status=live}}

{{further|Child-on-child sexual abuse}}

Sexual sibling abuse is defined as sexual behavior "that is not age appropriate, not transitory, and not motivated by developmentally appropriate curiosity." To identify sexual abuse, there needs to be coercion and domination over one sibling.{{Cite journal |last=Kiselica |first=Mark |date=2007 |title=Sibling Maltreatment: The Forgotten Abuse |journal=Journal of Counseling & Development |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=148–160 |doi=10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00457.x |via=EBSCO}} Prevalence rates are also difficult to calculate for several reasons: victims often do not realize that they are suffering abuse, until they reach maturity and have a better understanding of the role they played during the encounters; they are afraid of reporting; and there is no consensus on a definition of sibling sexual abuse.

As with other forms of abuse among siblings, there is a large lack of reporting in sibling sexual abuse, as parents either do not recognize it as being abuse or try to cover the abuse. An increased risk of sibling sexual abuse may be found in a heightened sexual climate in a family, or in a rigidly, sexually repressed family environments. Sexual abuse in siblings may have long-term affects on the victims. Many victims have been diagnosed with a variety of psychological problems. Victims have been recorded to correlate pain and fear with sex, leading to long term issues with intimacy.

Rudd and Herzberger report that brothers who committed incest were more likely to use force than fathers who commit incest (64% vs. 53%).{{cite journal | last1 = Rudd | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Herzberger | first2 = S. D. | year = 1999 | title = Brother-sister incest/father-daughter incest: A comparison of characteristics and consequences | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_1999-09_23_9/page/915 | journal = Child Abuse and Neglect | volume = 23 | issue = 9 | pages = 915–928 | doi = 10.1016/s0145-2134(99)00058-7 | pmid = 10505905 }} Similarly, Cyr and colleagues found that about 70% of sibling incest involved sexual penetration, substantially higher than other forms of incest.{{cite journal | last1 = Cyr | first1 = M. | last2 = Wright | first2 = J. | last3 = McDuff | first3 = P. | last4 = Perron | first4 = A. | year = 2002 | title = Intrafamilial sexual abuse: Brother-sister incest does not differ from father-daughter and stepfather-stepdaughter incest | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_2002-09_26_9/page/957 | journal = Child Abuse and Neglect | volume = 26 | issue = 9 | pages = 957–973 | doi = 10.1016/s0145-2134(02)00365-4 | pmid = 12433139 }} Bass and colleagues write that "sibling incest occurs at a frequency that rivals and may even exceed other forms of incest," yet only 11% of studies into child sexual abuse examined sibling perpetrators.Bass, L., Taylor, B., Kunutson-Martin, C. and Huenergardt, D. (2006) [https://www.proquest.com/docview/305178311 Making Sense of Abuse: Case Studies in Sibling Incest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601141122/https://www.proquest.com/docview/305178311 |date=2024-06-01 }}. Contemporary Family Therapy, Vol 28, no 1, pp 87-109 Rayment and Owen report that "[in comparison of] the offending patterns of sibling offenders with other teenage sex offenders ... Sibling abusers admitted to more sexual offenses, had a higher recidivism rate, and a majority engaged in more intrusive sexual behaviour than other adolescent sex offenders. The sibling perpetrator has more access to the victim and exists within a structure of silence and guilt."S. Rayment and N Owen. (1999) [http://www.sasian.org/pdf/owen.pdf WORKING WITH INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES WHERE SIBLING INCEST HAS OCCURRED: THE DYNAMICS, DILEMMAS AND PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222020956/http://www.sasian.org/pdf/owen.pdf |date=2009-12-22 }}. A paper presented at the Children and Crime: Victims and Offenders Conference convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology and held in Brisbane, 17–18 June 1999 A survey of eight hundred college students reported by David Finkelhor in the Journal of Marriage and Family Counseling found that fifteen percent of females and ten percent of males had been sexually abused by an older sibling.{{cite journal | last1 = Finkelhor | first1 = D | year = 1978 | title = Psychological, cultural, and family factors in incest and family sexual abuse | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family Counseling | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 41–79 | doi = 10.1111/j.1752-0606.1978.tb00539.x }}

Sibling rivalry, competition, and disagreements are considered normal components of childhood and adolescence. To identify physical, psychological, and relational sibling abuse, practitioners and parents need to observe behavior and ask questions about the sibling's relationships that will help them understand if there are characteristics that differentiate aggression from abuse. Sexual sibling abuse requires additional considerations. Victims may initially deny the existence of any type of abuse but this may be because they have not realized it yet. Different questions about the prevalence of types of aggression, frequency, the intention of harm, the magnitude of the aggression, and unidirectional dominance help assess the existence of abuse. Regarding sexual abuse, individuals are less likely to openly talk about it, unlike other forms of abuse such as physical or psychological. For this reason, in addition to asking direct questions about sibling sexual abuse, practitioners and parents must look out for behaviors that may indicate the presence of sexual abuse. Another challenge comes when differentiating between sexual abuse and adequate sexual behavior. The biggest difference relies on how incest happens with the consensus of both siblings while sexual abuse does not. A victim may not be aware that they did not consent because of innocence or lack of understanding of what was happening. The latter generally happens to children who are too young to understand sexual implications and boundaries.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Weihe suggests that four criteria should be used to determine if questionable behavior is rivalry or abusive. First, one must determine if the questionable behavior is age-appropriate, since children use different conflict-resolution tactics during various developmental stages. Second, one must determine if the behavior is an isolated incident or part of an enduring pattern: abuse is, by definition, a long-term pattern rather than occasional disagreements. Third, one must determine if there is an "aspect of victimization" to the behavior: rivalry tends to be incident-specific, reciprocal, and obvious to others, while abuse is characterized by secrecy and an imbalance of power. Fourth, one must determine the goal of the questionable behavior: the goal of abuse tends to be embarrassment or domination of the victim.

{{Excessive citations|section|date=April 2023}}

There are several important risk factors associated with sibling abuse.{{Cite book|title=Sibling Aggression: Assessment and Treatment|last=Caspi|first=Jonathan|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|year=2012|pages=14–19, 223–226}} They can be categorized into family system, parenting behavior, individual, and other risk factors.

This category of risk factors associated with sibling abuse looks at the family system as a whole. It includes negative and conflictual parent-child relationships,{{Cite journal|last=Hoffman, Kiecolt, & Edwards|date=2005|title=Physical violence between siblings: a theoretical and empirical analysis|journal=Journal of Family Issues|volume=2698)|pages=185–200}} parental hostility toward a child,{{Cite journal|last=Williams, Conger, & Blozis|date=2007|title=The development of interpersonal aggression during adolescence: the importance of parents, siblings, and family economics|journal=Child Development|volume=78(50|issue=5|pages=1526–1542|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01081.x|pmid=17883446}} spousal abuse, partner conflict, marital conflict,{{Cite journal|last=Haj-Yahia & Dawud-Noursi|date=1998|title=Predicting the use of different conflict tactics among Arab siblings in Israel: a study based on social learning theory|journal=Journal of Family Violence|volume=13|pages=81–103|doi=10.1023/A:1022864801027|s2cid=37677091}}{{Cite book|title=Intrafamily violence and crime and violence outside the family in Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families|last=Hotaling, Straus, & Lincoln (Straus & Gelles Eds.)|year=1990|pages=431–470}}{{Cite journal|last=Stocker & Youngblade|date=1999|title=Marital conflict and parental hostility: links with children's sibling and peer relationships|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-psychology_1999-12_13_4/page/598|journal=Journal of Family Psychology|volume=13 |issue=4|pages=598–609|doi=10.1037/0893-3200.13.4.598}} mother's marital dissatisfaction and negative emotional expressiveness,{{Cite journal|last=Stocker, Ahmed, & Stall|date=1997|title=Marital satisfaction and maternal emotional expressiveness: links with children's sibling relationships|journal=Social Development|volume=6 |issue=3|pages=373–385|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9507.1997.tb00112.x}} maternal self-criticism,{{Cite journal|last=Garcia, Shaw, Winslow, & Yaggi|date=2000|title=Destructive sibling conflict and the development of conduct problems in young boys|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_2000-01_36_1/page/44|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=36 |issue=1|pages=44–53|pmid=10645743|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.36.1.44}}{{Cite journal|last=MacKinnon-Lewis, Starnes, Volling & Johnson|date=1997|title=Perceptions of parenting as predictors of boys' sibling and peer relations|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=33|issue=6|pages=1024–1031|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.1024|pmid=9383624|s2cid=13286268}}{{Cite journal|last=Volling & Belsky|date=1992|title=The contribution of mother-child and father-child relationships to the quality of sibling interaction: a longitudinal study|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1992-10_63_5/page/1209|journal=Child Development|volume=63 |issue=5|pages=1209–1222|doi=10.2307/1131528|jstor=1131528|pmid=1446550}} financial stress,{{Cite journal|last=Hardy|date=2001|title=Physical aggression and sexual behavior among siblings: a retrospective study|journal=Journal of Family Violence|volume=16 |issue=3|pages=255–268|doi=10.1023/A:1011186215874|s2cid=19966643}}{{Cite journal|last=Williams, Conger, & Blozis|date=2007|title=The development of interpersonal aggression during adolescence: the importance of parents, siblings, and family economics|journal=Child Development|volume=78 |issue=5|pages=1526–1542|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01081.x|pmid=17883446}} low family cohesion, family disorganization and household chaos,{{Cite journal|last=Brody, Stoneman, & McCoy|date=1994|title=Forecasting sibling relationships in early adolescence from child temperaments and family processes in middle childhood|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1994-06_65_3/page/771|journal=Child Development|volume=65|issue=3|pages=771–784|doi=10.2307/1131417|jstor=1131417|pmid=8045166}}{{Cite journal|last=Eriksen & Jensen|date=2006|title=All in the family? Family environment factors in sibling violence|journal=Journal of Family Violence|volume=21 |issue=8|pages=497–507|doi=10.1007/s10896-006-9048-9|s2cid=34382270}}{{Cite journal|last=Kretschmer & Pike|date=2009|title=Young children's sibling relationship quality: distal and proximal correlates|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-child-psychology-and-psychiatry_2009-05_50_5/page/581|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry|volume=50 |issue=5|pages=581–589|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02016.x|pmid=19236529}} husband's losses of temper, low maternal education,{{Cite journal|last=Ensor, Marks, Jacobs, & Hughes|date=2010|title=Trajectories of antisocial behaviour towards siblings predict antisocial behaviour towards peers|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry|volume=51 |issue=11|pages=1208–1216|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02276.x|pmid=20584100|s2cid=31755375}} and family triangulation.{{Cite journal|last=Haskins|date=2003|title=Treating sibling incest using a family systems approach|journal=Journal of Mental Health Counseling|volume=25 |issue=4|pages=337–350|doi=10.17744/mehc.25.4.r0vm1whayctmlmww}}{{Cite journal|last=Kerig|date=1995|title=Triangles in the family circle: effects of family structure on marriage, parenting, and child adjustment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-psychology_1995-03_9_1/page/28|journal=Journal of Family Psychology|volume=9 |issue=1|pages=28–43|doi=10.1037/0893-3200.9.1.28}}{{Cite journal|last=Kiselica & Morrill-Richards|date=2007|title=Sibling maltreatment: the forgotten abuse|journal=Journal of Counseling & Development|volume=85 |issue=2|pages=148–160|doi=10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00457.x|s2cid=144831012}}

This category of risk factors associated with sibling abuse examines the parenting behavior of adult caregivers. It includes parental differential treatment of children,{{Cite book|title=The developmental importance of differences in siblings experiences within the family in Parent-child relations throughout life|last=Dunn (Pillimer & McCartney Eds.)|year=1991}} fathers favoring later-born sisters,{{Cite journal|last=Updegraff, Thayer, Whiteman, Denning, & McHale|date=2005|title=Relational aggression in adolescents' sibling relationships: links to sibling and parent-adolescent relationship quality|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_family-relations_2005-07_54_3/page/373|journal=Family Relations|volume=54 |issue=3|pages=373–385|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3729.2005.00324.x}} active and direct judgmental comparison,{{Cite journal|last=Feinberg & Hetherington|date=2001|title=Differential parenting as a within-family variable|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-psychology_2001-03_15_1/page/22|journal=Journal of Family Psychology|volume=15 |issue=1|pages=22–37|pmid=11322082|doi=10.1037/0893-3200.15.1.22}} parents labeling their children "bad-good" and "easy-difficult",{{Cite journal|last=Schachter|date=1985|title=Sibling deidentification in the clinic: devil v. angel|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_family-process_1985-09_24_3/page/415|journal=Family Process|volume=24 |issue=3|pages=415–427|doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.1985.00415.x|pmid=4043356}}{{Cite journal|last=Schachter & Stone|date=1995|title=Difficult sibling, easy sibling: temperament and the within-family environment|journal=Child Development|volume=56|issue=5|pages=1335–1344|doi=10.2307/1130248|jstor=1130248|s2cid=21744097}} low parental involvement, particularly by fathers, ineffective parenting,{{Cite journal|last=Bank, Burraston, & Snyder|date=2004|title=Sibling conflict and ineffective parenting as predictors of adolescent boys' antisocial behavior and peer difficulties: additive and interactional effects|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-on-adolescence_2004_14_1/page/99|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|volume=14 |issue=1|pages=99–125|doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01401005.x}} inconsistent discipline,{{Cite book|title=Negative sibling interaction patterns as predictors of later adjustment problems in adolescent and young adult males in Sibling relationships: their causes and consequences|last=Bank, Patterson, & Reid (Brody, Ed.)|year=1996|pages=197–229}} coercive parenting,{{Cite journal|last=Means-Burleson|date=2002|title=Aggression: family and sibling correlates|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering|volume=63(6-B)|pages=3015}} maternal coercive, rejecting, and over-controlling behaviors,{{Cite journal|last=Yu|date=2008|title=Reexamining aggression and social affordance in sibling relationships: taking a closer look at neglected characteristics|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering|volume=68(11-B)|pages=7693}} parental abuse of children,{{Cite journal|last=Button & Gealt|date=2010|title=High risk behaviors among victims of sibling violence|journal=Journal of Family Violence|volume=25 |issue=2|pages=131–140|doi=10.1007/s10896-009-9276-x|s2cid=25607443}} parent's use of violence to resolve parent-child conflict,{{Cite journal|last=Graham-Burmann, Cutler, Litzenberger, & Schwartz|date=1994|title=Perceived conflict and violence in childhood sibling relationships and later emotional adjustment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-psychology_1994-03_8_1/page/85|journal=Journal of Family Psychology|volume=8 |issue=1|pages=85–97|doi=10.1037/0893-3200.8.1.85}} parental neglect and approval of aggression,{{Cite journal|last=Rosenthal & Doherty|date=1984|title=Serious sibling abuse by preschool children|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry|volume=23 |issue=2|pages=186–190|doi=10.1097/00004583-198403000-00010|pmid=6715740|s2cid=40834376}} corporal punishment, not providing supervision,{{Cite journal|last=Whipple & Finton|date=1995|title=Psychological maltreatment by siblings: an unrecognized form of abuse|journal=Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal|volume=12 |issue=2|pages=135–146|doi=10.1007/BF01876209|s2cid=144194464}} not intervening in sibling conflict,{{Cite journal|last=Bennett|date=1990|title=Nonintervention into siblings' fighting as a catalyst for learned helplessness|journal=Psychological Reports|volume=66 |issue=1|pages=139–145|doi=10.2466/pr0.1990.66.1.139|pmid=2183255|s2cid=27922535}} not acknowledging child-voiced claims of maltreatment,{{Cite book|title=Sibling abuse: hidden physical, emotional, and sexual trauma|last=Wiehe|publisher=Sage Publications|year=1997}} not reinforcing pro-social behaviors,{{Cite journal|last=Bryant & Crockenberg|date=1980|title=Correlates and dimensions of prosocial behavior: a study of female siblings with their mothers|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1980-06_51_2/page/529|journal=Child Development|volume=51 |issue=2|pages=529–544|doi=10.2307/1129288|jstor=1129288|pmid=7398455}} and restricting children's efforts to diversify interests and specialization.{{Cite book|title=Born to rebel: birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives|url=https://archive.org/details/borntorebelbirth00sull|last=Sulloway|publisher=Pantheon Books|year=1996|location=New York}}

This category of risk factors associated with sibling abuse considers individual traits of the offender child and the victim child. For offender children, known individual risk factors include lack of empathy for victims,{{Cite journal|last=Silverman|date=1999|title=Sibling violence: its relation to childhood observation of caretaker violence and factors derived from the brother-sister questionnaire|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering|volume=60(5-B)|pages=2368}} aggressive temperament,{{Cite journal|last=Munn & Dunn|date=1988|title=Temperament and the developing relationship between siblings|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Development|volume=12|issue=4|pages=433–451|doi=10.1177/016502548901200402|s2cid=145592749}} lower or higher self-esteem than peers,{{Cite journal|last=Hanson, Henggeler, Harris, Cigrang, Schinkel, Rodrigue |display-authors=etal |date=1992|title=Contributions of sibling relations to the adaptation of youths with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-consulting-and-clinical-psychology_1992-02_60_1/page/104 |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|volume=60 |issue=1|pages=104–112|doi=10.1037/0022-006X.60.1.104 |pmid=1556272 }} unmet personal needs for physical contact in emotion-deprived environments,{{Cite book|title=The sibling bond|last=Bank & Kahn|publisher=Basic Books|year=1997}} experience of victimization, including by siblings,{{Cite journal|last=Caffaro & Conn-Caffaro|date=2005|title=Treating sibling abuse families|journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=10|issue=5|pages=604–623|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2004.12.001}} sibling caretaking of younger brothers and sisters,{{Cite journal|last=Baum|date=1998|title=Correlates of sibling violence|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering|volume=58(11-A)|pages=4442}}{{Cite journal|last=Green|date=1984|title=Child abuse by siblings|journal=Child Abuse & Neglect|volume=8|issue=3|pages=311–317|doi=10.1016/0145-2134(84)90072-3|pmid=6541083}} and boredom.{{Cite journal|last=Prochaska & Prochaska|date=1985|title=Children's views of the causes and "cures" of sibling rivalry|journal=Child Welfare|volume=64 |issue=4|pages=427–433}} For victim children, a known risk factor is psychological distress such as anger, depression, and anxiety from violence victimization by siblings (linked to re-victimization).{{Cite journal|last=Cuevas, Finkelhor, Clifford, Ormrod, & Turner|date=2010|title=Psychological distress as a risk factor for re-victimization in children|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_2010-04_34_4/page/235|journal=Child Abuse & Neglect|volume=34 |issue=4|pages=235–243|doi=10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.004|pmid=20304492}}{{Cite journal|last=Tuner, Finkelhor, & Ormrod|date=2010|title=Poly-victimization in a national sample of children and youth|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2010-03_38_3/page/323|journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine|volume=38 |issue=3|pages=323–330|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2009.11.012|pmid=20171535}}

Several other risk factors are associated with sibling abuse. One is birth order and age spacing. A study found that first-born children were more likely to be sibling abuse offenders.{{Cite journal|last=Martin & Ross|date=1995|title=The development of aggression within sibling conflict|journal=Early Education and Development|volume=6 |issue=4|pages=335–358|doi=10.1207/s15566935eed0604_4}} Imitating an older sibling's aggressive behavior,{{Cite book|title=The contribution of siblings to training for fighting: a micro social analysis in Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior: research, theories, and issues|last=Patterson (Block & Radke-Yarros Eds.)|publisher=Academic Press|year=1986|location=New York|pages=235–261}} being given the task of sibling caretaking, and close age spacing{{Cite journal|last=Aguilar, O'Brien, August, Aoun, & Hektner|date=2001|title=Relationship quality of aggressive children and their siblings: a multi-informant, multi-measure investigation|journal=Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology|volume=29|issue=6|pages=479–489|doi=10.1023/A:1012273024211|pmid=11761282|s2cid=27995949}}{{Cite journal|last=Noland, Lille, McDermott, Coulter, & Seraphine|date=2004|title=Is adolescent sibling violence a precursor to college dating violence?|journal=American Journal of Health Behavior|volume=28 |issue=1|pages=S13–S23|doi=10.5993/ajhb.28.s1.3|pmid=15055568|s2cid=15568814}} were also found to be closely associated with sibling abuse.

Another risk factor is gender. The presence of a male child within the sibling group{{Cite journal|last=Lockwood|date=2002|title=Examination of siblings' aggression styles: do sisters show more relational aggression than brothers?|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering|volume=63(5-B)|pages=2621}}{{Cite journal|last=Randall|date=1992|title=Adolescents may experience home, school abuse; their future draws researchers' concern|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|volume=267 |issue=23|pages=3127–3128|doi=10.1001/jama.1992.03480230019004|pmid=1593722|s2cid=27719876}} and older brother-younger sister pairs{{Cite journal|last=Buhrmester & Furman|date=1990|title=Perceptions of sibling relationships during middle childhood and adolescence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1990-10_61_5/page/1387|journal=Child Development|volume=61|issue=5|pages=1387–1398|doi=10.2307/1130750|jstor=1130750|pmid=2245732}} are associated with the occurrence of sibling abuse and being female{{Cite journal|last=Atwood|date=2001|title=Gender bias in families and its clinical implication for women|journal=Social Work|volume=46 |issue=1|pages=23–36|pmid=11217491|doi=10.1093/sw/46.1.23}} is associated with the experience of victimization by a sibling.

Sociocultural background also factors into sibling abuse. Some known sociocultural background risk factors include cultural practices such as primogeniture and patriarchy,{{Cite journal|last=Hoffman & Edwards|date=2004|title=An integrated theoretical model of sibling violence and abuse|journal=Journal of Family Violence|volume=19 |issue=3|pages=185–200|doi=10.1023/B:JOFV.0000028078.71745.a2|s2cid=44771531}} disability of a sibling,{{Cite journal|last=Linares|date=2006|title=An understudied form of intra-family violence: sibling-to-sibling aggression among foster children|journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=11|pages=95–109|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2005.07.001}} family economic pressure, excessive sibling caregiving, and ethnic/cultural background in which sibling aggression is widely condoned.{{Cite journal|last=Rapoza, Cook, Zaveri, & Malley-Morrison|date=2010|title=Ethnic perspectives on sibling abuse in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-issues_2010-06_31_6/page/808|journal=Journal of Family Issues|volume=31 |issue=6|pages=808–829|doi=10.1177/0192513X09359158|s2cid=145708763}}

Parental alcoholism, parental support of child aggression, and social glorification of violence in the media have also been associated with sibling abuse.

The effects of sibling abuse closely parallel those of other forms of child abuse.{{Cite book |last=Caffaro |first=John |title=Sibling Abuse Trauma: Assessment and Intervention Strategies for Children, Families, and Adults |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |pages=78–84, 123–126}} Potential effects of sibling abuse include difficulty separating pleasure from pain and fear from desire in a sexual relationship,{{Cite book |last=Wiehe |title=Sibling abuse: hidden physical, emotional, and sexual trauma |publisher=Sage Publications |year=1997}} re-victimization in adulthood,{{Cite book |last=Briere & Runtz |title=Post sexual abuse trauma in Lasting effects of child sexual abuse |year=1988 |pages=85–99}} difficulty in developing and sustaining intimate relationships,{{Cite journal |last=Finkelhor, Hotaling, Lewis, & Smith |date=1989 |title=Sexual abuse and its relationship to later sexual satisfaction, marital status, religion, and attitudes |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=279–399 |doi=10.1177/088626089004004001 |s2cid=144307047}} trouble negotiating boundaries, intimacy issues, and interdependency in relationships.{{Cite journal |last=Caffaro |date=2011 |title=Introduction to the special issue: siblings and groups |journal=Group |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=273–277|doi=10.1353/grp.2011.a844816 |s2cid=247624658 }}

It is possible that there may be significant problems following sibling abuse such as affect regulation and accompanying affect disorders, impulse control, somatization, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia nervosa, substance abuse issues, major depression and problems with socialization.{{Cite journal |last=Putnam |date=2003 |title=Ten-year research update review: child sexual abuse |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=269–278 |doi=10.1097/00004583-200303000-00006 |pmid=12595779 |s2cid=17567105}} Siblings may exhibit internalizing or externalizing behaviors that can be disruptive to the family unit.{{Cite journal |last=Tremblay, Hébert, & Piché |date=1999 |title=Coping strategies and social support as mediators of consequences in child sexual abuse victims |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |volume=23 |issue=9 |pages=929–945 |doi=10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00056-3 |pmid=10505906}} Such behaviors problems may escalate into other behavior problems such as aggression and delinquency.{{Cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Monica M. |last2=Shaw |first2=Daniel S. |last3=Winslow |first3=Emily B. |last4=Yaggi |first4=Kirsten E. |date=2000 |title=Destructive sibling conflict and the development of conduct problems in young boys. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.1.44 |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44–53 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.36.1.44 |pmid=10645743 |issn=1939-0599 |access-date=2023-04-17 |archive-date=2024-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601141127/https://psycnet.apa.org/api/request/browsePA.getJournals |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} Siblings that have been affected by sibling abuse may be more susceptible to developing conduct disorder and having more mental health distress caused by sibling abuse. Siblicide may be an effect of sibling abuse in which a sibling commits homicide against another sibling; typically seen as a male sibling entering life as an adult against a younger brother.{{Cite journal |last1=Waid |first1=Jeffrey D. |last2=Tanana |first2=Michael J. |last3=Vanderloo |first3=Mindy J. |last4=Voit |first4=Rachel |last5=Kothari |first5=Brianne H. |date=2020-08-07 |title=The role of siblings in the development of externalizing behaviors during childhood and adolescence: a scoping review |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2020.1799893 |journal=Journal of Family Social Work |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=318–337 |doi=10.1080/10522158.2020.1799893 |s2cid=222315218 |issn=1052-2158 |access-date=2023-04-17 |archive-date=2024-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601141122/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10522158.2020.1799893 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}

{{Undue weight|date=October 2024|section|reason=Is Caspi's book especially notable?}}

Jonathan Caspi identified several prevention methods for children and families, educators and practitioners, researchers, and the culture at large in Sibling Aggression: Assessment and Treatment (2012).{{Cite book|title=Sibling Aggression: Assessment and Treatment|last=Caspi|first=Jonathan|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|year=2012|pages=213–217}} For children and families, pro-social skill development to increase social-emotional competencies with siblings{{Cite journal|last=Kennedy & Kramer|date=2008|title=Improving emotion regulation and sibling relationship quality: The More Fun with Sisters and Brothers Program|journal=Family Relations|volume=57|issue=5|pages=568–579|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00523.x|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last=Kramer & Radey|date=1997|title=Improving sibling relationships among young children: a social skills training model|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_family-relations_1997-07_46_3/page/237|journal=Family Relations|volume=46|issue=3|pages=237–246|doi=10.2307/585121|jstor=585121}}{{Cite journal|last=Tiedemann & Johnston|date=1992|title=Evaluation of a parent training program to promote sharing between young siblings|journal=Behavior Therapy|volume=23|issue=2|pages=299–318|doi=10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80387-9}} and parental training can be used to prevent sibling abuse.{{Cite book|title=Youth violence: a report of the Surgeon General|last=U.S. Surgeon General|publisher=Department of Health and Human Services|year=2001|location=Washington, DC}} For educators and practitioners, addressing sibling relationships in the curriculum can help prevent sibling abuse.{{Cite book|title=Sibling development: implications for mental health practitioners|last=Caspi (Ed.)|publisher=Springer Publishing|year=2011|location=New York}} For researchers, giving attention to sibling relationships and developing prevention programs in collaboration with practitioners may create potential prevention methods for sibling abuse. For the culture at large, Caspi proposes not accepting sibling aggression as normal, public awareness and educational campaigns, and making sibling aggression visible.

{{Undue weight|date=October 2024|section|reason=Is Caspi's book especially notable?}}

John V. Caffaro outlines clinical best practices for treatment of sibling abuse in Sibling Abuse Trauma: Assessment and Intervention Strategies for Children, Families, and Adults (2014). They include "extra precautions to ensure the victim's safety, such as locks on doors, increased adult supervision, and cooperation of parents, extended family members, and the community", "individual treatment for the victim and the offender, often with different clinicians possessing expertise in child abuse trauma", and "no conjoint sibling or family meetings with the offender until he or she has accepted full responsibility for the abuse and until the therapist is satisfied that the family can and will protect the victim from further abuse".{{Cite book |last=Caffaro |first=John |title=Sibling Abuse Trauma: Assessment and Intervention Strategies for Children, Families, and Adults |year=2014 |pages=164–194}}

Cheyenne Brando, the daughter of the legendary actor Marlon Brando, confessed that her brother Christian seemed to be in love with her, and that he was jealous of her boyfriend Dag Drollet; that is why Christian killed him in 1990, according to Cheyenne. Christian stated during his trial that Cheyenne told him that Dag was abusive to her, and that he wanted to protect her, and that he never meant to kill Dag; it was a "terrible accident". Christian was sentenced to ten years in jail in 1991, and Cheyenne committed suicide in 1995. Cheyenne was abusive toward her two sisters, Maimiti and Raiatua, as well as towards Marlon Brando and Tarita, her parents, particularly her mother. Tarita Teriipaia wrote a book in 2005, which revealed Cheyenne terrorized her own family, as a result of her suffering from schizophrenia.{{cite web|url=http://ilcinema.canalblog.com/archives/2012/11/30/25703882.html|title=1990-2004: "Brando's Affair", Family drama and Death of Marlon. Part 1|date=2013-02-20|access-date=2013-05-26|archive-date=2013-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607031446/http://ilcinema.canalblog.com/archives/2012/11/30/25703882.html|url-status=live}}

The French serial killer Guy Georges physically abused his adoptive elder sisters when he was 14, nearly killing them.{{Cite web|url=http://grands.criminels.free.fr/guygeorges.html|title=guy_georges|website=grands.criminels.free.fr|access-date=2013-05-25|archive-date=2013-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517113907/http://grands.criminels.free.fr/guygeorges.html|url-status=live}}

In 2013, the Australian actor Hugh Jackman opened up about the physical and verbal abuse by his older brother. He said the abuse helped his acting in Wolverine, and that when his brother apologized, Jackman felt released.{{cite web|url=http://hughjackmanteam.com/publ/hugh_jackman_interviews/hugh_jackman_quot_my_wife_and_my_kids_are_the_real_centre_of_my_world_quot/3-1-0-158|title=Hugh Jackman: "My wife and my kids are the real centre of my world"|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207054138/http://hughjackmanteam.com/publ/hugh_jackman_interviews/hugh_jackman_quot_my_wife_and_my_kids_are_the_real_centre_of_my_world_quot/3-1-0-158|archive-date=2012-12-07}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.purepeople.com/article/hugh-jackman-fils-abandonne-et-frere-tyrannise-il-est-devenu-wolverine_a124634/1|title=Hugh Jackman : Fils abandonné et frère tyrannisé, il est devenu Wolverine !|website=www.purepeople.com|date=15 July 2013 |access-date=2023-03-22|archive-date=2023-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322193828/https://www.purepeople.com/article/hugh-jackman-fils-abandonne-et-frere-tyrannise-il-est-devenu-wolverine_a124634/1|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/oct/06/hugh-jackman-interview-real-steel|title=Hugh Jackman: 'What are ya – a poof?'|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2011-10-06|last1=Gilbey|first1=Ryan}}{{cite web|url=http://metro.co.uk/2009/04/06/bullied-jackman-wanted-to-kill-brother-7392/#ixzz20IPvDuPH|title=Bullied Jackman wanted to 'kill' brother|date=2009-04-06|access-date=2013-08-06|archive-date=2015-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216103239/http://metro.co.uk/2009/04/06/bullied-jackman-wanted-to-kill-brother-7392/#ixzz20IPvDuPH|url-status=live}}

{{Reflist}}

• University of New Hampshire, Crimes Against Children Research Center, [https://www.unh.edu/saara/ Sibling Aggression and Abuse Research and Advocacy Initiative (SAARA)]

• Wiehe, Vernon R. What Parents Need to Know About Sibling Abuse: Breaking the Cycle of Violence (2002)
• Caffaro., J. & Conn-Caffaro, A. (1998). Sibling Abuse Trauma, NY: Routledge.
• {{cite journal | last1 = Caffaro | first1 = J. | last2 = Conn-Caffaro | first2 = A. | year = 2005 | title = Treating Sibling Abuse Families | journal = Aggression and Violent Behavior | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 604–623 | doi = 10.1016/j.avb.2004.12.001 }}
• Caffaro, J. (2013). Sibling abuse trauma. 2nd Edition. NY: Routledge.
• Caspi, J. (2012). Sibling Aggression: Assessment and Treatment. NY: Springer Publishing

{{abuse}}

{{Domestic violence}}

{{Psychological manipulation}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Sibling Abuse}}

Category:Child abuse

Category:Domestic violence

Abuse

Category:Incestual abuse

Category:Sibling rivalry