single-photon source

A single-photon source (also known as a single photon emitter)Aharonovich, I., Englund, D. & Toth, M. Solid-state single-photon emitters. Nature Photon 10, 631–641 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2016.186 is a light source that emits light as single particles or photons. Single-photon sources are distinct from coherent light sources (lasers) and thermal light sources such as incandescent light bulbs. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle dictates that a state with an exact number of photons of a single frequency cannot be created. However, Fock states (or number states) can be studied for a system where the electric field amplitude is distributed over a narrow bandwidth. In this context, a single-photon source gives rise to an effectively one-photon number state.

Photons from an ideal single-photon source exhibit quantum mechanical characteristics. These characteristics include photon antibunching, so that the time between two successive photons is never less than some minimum value.

This behaviour is normally demonstrated by using a beam splitter to direct about half of the incident photons toward one avalanche photodiode, and half toward a second. Pulses from one detector are used to provide a ‘counter start’ signal, to a fast electronic timer, and the other, delayed by a known number of nanoseconds, is used to provide a ‘counter stop’ signal. By repeatedly measuring the times between ‘start’ and ‘stop’ signals, one can form a histogram of time delay between two photons and the coincidence count- if bunching is not occurring, and photons are indeed well spaced, a clear notch around zero delay is visible.

History

Although the concept of a single photon was proposed by Planck as early as 1900,{{cite journal |last1=Planck|first1=M. |author1-link=Max Planck |year=1900 |title=Über eine Verbesserung der Wienschen Spektralgleichung |journal=Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft |volume=2 |pages=202–204 }} a true single-photon source was not created in isolation until 1974. This was achieved by utilising a cascade transition within mercury atoms.{{cite journal |last1=Clauser |first1=John F. |year=1974 |title=Experimental distinction between the quantum and classical field-theoretic predictions for the photoelectric effect |journal=Phys. Rev. D |volume=9 |number=4 |pages=853–860|doi=10.1103/physrevd.9.853|bibcode=1974PhRvD...9..853C |s2cid=118320287 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3wm0v847 }} Individual atoms emit two photons at different frequencies in the cascade transition and by spectrally filtering the light the observation of one photon can be used to 'herald' the other. The observation of these single photons was characterised by its anticorrelation on the two output ports of a beamsplitter in a similar manner to the famous Hanbury Brown and Twiss experiment of 1956.{{cite journal|last1=Hanbury Brown |first1=R. |last2=Twiss |first2=R. Q. |year=1956 |title=A test of a new type of stellar interferometer on sirius |journal=Nature |volume=175 |issue=4541 |pages=1046–1048|doi=10.1038/1781046a0 |bibcode=1956Natur.178.1046H |s2cid=38235692 }}

Another single-photon source came in 1977 which used the fluorescence from an attenuated beam of sodium atoms.{{cite journal|last1=Kimble |first1=H. J. |last2=Dagenais |first2=M. |last3=Mandel |first3=L. |year=1977 |title=Photon Antibunching in Resonance Fluorescence |journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=39 |number=11 |pages=691–695 |doi=10.1103/physrevlett.39.691|bibcode=1977PhRvL..39..691K |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/6051/1/KIMprl77.pdf }} A beam of sodium atoms was attenuated so that no more than one or two atoms contributed to the observed fluorescence radiation at any one time. In this way, only single emitters were producing light and the observed fluorescence showed the characteristic antibunching. The isolation of individual atoms continued with ion traps in the mid-1980s. A single ion could be held in a radio frequency Paul trap for an extended period of time (10 min) thus acting as a single emitter of multiple single photons as in the experiments of Diedrich and Walther.{{cite journal |last1=Diedrich |first1=Frank |last2=Walther |first2=Herbert |year=1987 |title=Nonclassical Radiation of a Single Stored Ion |journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=58 |number=3 |pages=203–206 |doi=10.1103/physrevlett.58.203 |pmid=10034869|bibcode=1987PhRvL..58..203D }} At the same time the nonlinear process of parametric down conversion began to be utilised and from then until the present day it has become the workhorse of experiments requiring single photons.

Advances in microscopy led to the isolation of single molecules in the end of the 1980s.{{cite journal|last1=Moerner|first1=W. E.|last2=Kador|first2=L.|title=Optical detection and spectroscopy of single molecules in a solid|journal=Physical Review Letters|date=22 May 1989|volume=62|issue=21|pages=2535–2538|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.62.2535|pmid=10040013|bibcode=1989PhRvL..62.2535M|doi-access=free}} Subsequently, single pentacene molecules were detected in p-terphenyl crystals.{{cite journal |last1=Orrit |first1=M. |last2=Bernard |first2=J. |year=1990 |title=Single Pentacene Molecules Detected by Fluorescence Excitation in a p-Terphenyl Crystal |journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=65 |number=21 |pages=2716–2719 |doi=10.1103/physrevlett.65.2716|pmid=10042674 |bibcode=1990PhRvL..65.2716O }} The single molecules have begun to be utilised as single-photon sources.{{cite journal | last1=Basché | first1=T. | last2=Moerner | first2=W.E. | last3=Orrit | first3=M. | last4=Talon | first4=H. | year=1992 | title=Photon antibunching in the fluorescence of a single dye molecule trapped in a solid |journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume= 69 | number=10 | pages=1516–1519 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.69.1516 | pmid=10046242| url=http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA252261 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620133715/http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA252261 | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 20, 2017 | bibcode=1992PhRvL..69.1516B | s2cid=44952356 | url-access=subscription }}

Within the 21st century defect centres in various solid state materials have emerged,{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/nphoton.2016.186|title = Solid-state single-photon emitters|journal = Nature Photonics|volume = 10|issue = 10|pages = 631–641|year = 2016|last1 = Aharonovich|first1 = Igor|last2 = Englund|first2 = Dirk|last3 = Toth|first3 = Milos|bibcode = 2016NaPho..10..631A| s2cid=43380771 }} most notably diamond, silicon carbide{{Cite journal|last1=Castelletto|first1=S.|last2=Johnson|first2=B. C.|last3=Ivády|first3=V.|last4=Stavrias|first4=N.|last5=Umeda|first5=T.|last6=Gali|first6=A.|last7=Ohshima|first7=T.|date=February 2014|title=A silicon carbide room-temperature single-photon source|journal=Nature Materials|volume=13|issue=2|pages=151–156|doi=10.1038/nmat3806|pmid=24240243|bibcode=2014NatMa..13..151C|s2cid=37160386 |issn=1476-1122|url=http://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:22805}}{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1063/1.4939906|title = Activation and control of visible single defects in 4H-, 6H-, and 3C-SiC by oxidation|journal = Applied Physics Letters|volume = 108|issue = 2|pages = 021107|year = 2016|last1 = Lohrmann|first1 = A.|last2 = Castelletto|first2 = S.|last3 = Klein|first3 = J. R.|last4 = Ohshima|first4 = T.|last5 = Bosi|first5 = M.|last6 = Negri|first6 = M.|last7 = Lau|first7 = D. W. M.|last8 = Gibson|first8 = B. C.|last9 = Prawer|first9 = S.|last10 = McCallum|first10 = J. C.|last11 = Johnson|first11 = B. 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Lett. |volume=85 |number=2| pages=290–293 |doi=10.1103/physrevlett.85.290|pmid=10991265 |bibcode=2000PhRvL..85..290K |s2cid=23862264 }} These sources along with molecules can use the strong confinement of light (mirrors, microresonators, optical fibres, waveguides, etc.) to enhance the emission of the NV centres. As well as NV centres and molecules, quantum dots (QDs),{{cite journal|last1=Michler|first1=P.|last2=Kiraz|first2=A.|last3=Becher|first3=C.|last4=Schoenfeld|first4=W. V.|last5=Petroff|first5=P. 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It is noted that the single photon sources at telecom wavelength of 1,550 nm are very important in fiber-optic communication and they are mostly indium arsenide QDs.{{cite journal|last1=Birowosuto|first1=M. D.|last2=Sumikura|first2=H.|last3=Matsuo|first3=S.|last4=Taniyama|first4=H.|last5=Veldhoven|first5=P.J.|last6=Notzel|first6=R.|last7=Notomi|first7=M.|title=Fast Purcell-enhanced single photon source in 1,550-nm telecom band from a resonant quantum dot-cavity coupling|journal=Sci. Rep.|year=2012|volume=2|pages=321|doi=10.1038/srep00321|pmid=22432053|pmc=3307054|arxiv=1203.6171|bibcode=2012NatSR...2E.321B}}

{{cite journal|last1=Muller|first1=T.|last2=Skiba-Szymanska|first2=J.|last3=Krysa|first3=A.B.|last4=Huwer|first4=J.|last5=Felle|first5=M.|last6=Anderson|first6=M.|last7=Stevenson|first7=R.M.|last8=Heffernan|first8=J.|last9=Ritchie|first9=D.A.|last10=Shields|first10=A.J.|title=A quantum light-emitting diode for the standard telecom window around 1,550 nm|journal=Nat. Commun.|year=2018|volume=9|issue=1|pages=862|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-03251-7|pmid=29491362|pmc=5830408|arxiv=1710.03639|bibcode=2018NatCo...9..862M}} However, by creating downconversion quantum interface from visible single photon sources, one still can create single photon at 1,550 nm with preserved antibunching.{{cite journal|last1=Pelc|first1=J.S.|last2=Yu|first2=L.|last3=De Greve|first3=K.|last4=McMahon|first4=P.L.|last5=Natarajan|first5=C.M.|last6=Esfandyarpour|first6=V.|last7=Maier|first7=S.|last8=Schneider|first8=C.|last9=Kamp|first9=M.|last10=Shields|first10=A.J.|last11=Höfling|first11=A.J.|last12=Hadfield|first12=R.|last13=Forschel|first13=A.|last14=Yamamoto|first14=Y.|title=Downconversion quantum interface for a single quantum dot spin and 1550-nm single-photon channel|journal=Opt. Express|year=2012|volume=20|issue=25|pages=27510–9|doi=10.1364/OE.20.027510|pmid=23262701|arxiv=1209.6404|bibcode=2012OExpr..2027510P|s2cid=847645}}

Exciting atoms and excitons to highly interacting Rydberg levels prevents more than one excitation over the so-called blockade volume. Hence Rydberg excitation in a small atomic ensembles{{Cite journal|last1=Dudin|first1=Y. O.|last2=Kuzmich|first2=A.|date=2012-05-18|title=Strongly Interacting Rydberg Excitations of a Cold Atomic Gas|journal=Science|volume=336|issue=6083|pages=887–889|bibcode=2012Sci...336..887D|doi=10.1126/science.1217901|issn=0036-8075|pmid=22517325|s2cid=206539415|doi-access=free}} or crystals{{Cite journal|last1=Khazali|first1=Mohammadsadegh|last2=Heshami|first2=Khabat|last3=Simon|first3=Christoph|date=2017-10-23|title=Single-photon source based on Rydberg exciton blockade|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6455/aa8d7c|journal=Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics|volume=50|issue=21|pages=215301|doi=10.1088/1361-6455/aa8d7c|arxiv=1702.01213 |bibcode=2017JPhB...50u5301K |s2cid=118910311 |issn=0953-4075}} could act as a single photon emitters.

Definition

In quantum theory, photons describe quantized electromagnetic radiation. Specifically, a photon is an elementary excitation of a normal mode of the electromagnetic field. Thus a single-photon state is the quantum state of a radiation mode that contains a single excitation.

Single radiation modes are labelled by, among other quantities, the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation that they describe. However, in quantum optics, single-photon states also refer to mathematical superpositions of single-frequency (monochromatic) radiation modes.{{Cite book|title=Quantum optics|author=Scully, Marlan O. |date=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|others=Zubairy, Muhammad Suhail, 1952-|isbn=9780521435956|location=Cambridge|oclc=817937365}} This definition is general enough to include photon wave-packets, i.e., states of radiation that are localized to some extent in space and time.

Single-photon sources generate single-photon states as described above. In other words, ideal single-photon sources generate radiation with a photon-number distribution that has a mean one and variance zero.{{Cite journal|last1=Eisaman|first1=M. D.|last2=Fan|first2=J.|last3=Migdall|first3=A.|last4=Polyakov|first4=S. V.|date=2011-07-01|title=Invited Review Article: Single-photon sources and detectors|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=82|issue=7|pages=071101–071101–25|doi=10.1063/1.3610677|pmid=21806165|issn=0034-6748|bibcode=2011RScI...82g1101E|doi-access=free}}

Characteristics

An ideal-single photon source produces single-photon states with 100% probability and optical vacuum or multi-photon states with 0% probability. Desirable properties of real-world single-photon sources include efficiency, robustness, ease of implementation and on-demand nature, i.e., generating single-photons at arbitrarily chosen times. Single-photon sources including single emitters such as single atoms, ions and molecules, and including solid-state emitters such as quantum dots, color centers and carbon nanotubes are on-demand. Currently, there are many active nanomaterials engineered into single quantum emitters where their spontaneous emission could be tuned by changing the local density of optical states in dielectric nanostructures. The dielectric nanostructures are usually designed within the

heterostructures to enhance the light-matter interaction, and thus further improve the efficiency of these single photon sources.{{cite journal|author=Birowosuto, M.|title=Movable high-Q nanoresonators realized by semiconductor nanowires on a Si photonic crystal platform |journal=Nature Materials|volume=13|issue=3 |pages=279–285 |year=2014|doi=10.1038/nmat3873|pmid=24553654 |display-authors=etal|arxiv=1403.4237|bibcode=2014NatMa..13..279B |s2cid=21333714 }}{{cite journal|author=Diguna, L., Birowosuto, M|title=Light–matter interaction of single quantum emitters with dielectric nanostructures |journal=Photonics|volume=5|issue=2 |pages=14 |year=2018|doi=10.3390/photonics5020014|bibcode=2018Photo...5...14D |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free|hdl=10220/45525|hdl-access=free}} Another type of source comprises non-deterministic sources, i.e., not on demand, and these include examples such as weak lasers, atomic cascades and parametric down-conversion.

The single-photon nature of a source can be quantized using the second-order correlation function $g^{(2)}(\tau)$ . Ideal single-photon sources show $g^{(2)}(0) = 0$ and good single-photon sources have small $g^{(2)}(0)$ . The second-order correlation function can be measured using the Hanbury-Brown–Twiss effect.

Types

The generation of a single photon occurs when a source creates only one photon within its fluorescence lifetime after being optically or electrically excited. An ideal single-photon source has yet to be created. Given{{cn|date=September 2024}} that the main applications for a high-quality single-photon source are quantum key distribution, quantum repeaters{{cite journal | last1 = Meter | first1 = R.V. | last2 = Touch | first2 = J. | year = 2013 | title = Designing quantum repeater networks | journal = IEEE Communications Magazine | volume = 51 | issue = 8| pages = 64–71 | doi=10.1109/mcom.2013.6576340| s2cid = 27978069 }}{{dubious|reason=ref does say anything about high quality single photon sources|date=September 2024}} and quantum information science, the photons generated should also have a wavelength that would give low loss and attenuation when travelling through an optical fiber. Nowadays the most common sources of single photons{{cn|date=September 2024}} are single molecules, Rydberg atoms,{{Cite journal|last1=Dudin|first1=Y. O.|last2=Kuzmich|first2=A.|date=2012-04-19|title=Strongly Interacting Rydberg Excitations of a Cold Atomic Gas|journal=Science|volume=336|issue=6083|pages=887–889|doi=10.1126/science.1217901|pmid=22517325|bibcode=2012Sci...336..887D|s2cid=206539415|issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free}}{{dubious|reason=ref says its only a promising technology|date=September 2024}} diamond colour centres and quantum dots, with the last being widely studied{{cn|date=September 2024}}} with efforts from many research groups to realize quantum dots that fluoresce single photons at room temperature with photons in the low loss window of fiber-optic communication.

For many purposes single photons need to be anti-bunched, and this can be verified.

= Faint laser =

One of the first and easiest sources was created by attenuating a conventional laser beam to reduce its intensity and thereby the mean photon number per pulse. Since the photon statistics follow a Poisson distribution one can achieve sources with a well defined probability ratio for the emission of one versus two or more photons. For example, a mean value of μ = 0.1 leads to a probability of 90% for zero photons, 9% for one photon and 1% for more than one photon.{{Cite book|last1=Al-Kathiri|first1=S.|last2=Al-Khateeb|first2=W.|last3=Hafizulfika|first3=M.|last4=Wahiddin|first4=M. R.|last5=Saharudin|first5=S.|title=2008 International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering |chapter=Characterization of mean photon number for key distribution system using faint laser |date=May 2008|pages=1237–1242|doi=10.1109/ICCCE.2008.4580803|isbn=978-1-4244-1691-2|s2cid=18300454}}

Although such a source can be used for certain applications, it has a second-order intensity correlation function equal to one (no antibunching). For many applications however, antibunching is required, for instance in quantum cryptography.

Heralded single photons

Pairs of single photons can be generated in highly correlated states from using a single high-energy photon to create two lower-energy ones. One photon from the resulting pair may be detected to 'herald' the other (so its state is pretty well known prior to detection as long as the two photon state is separable, otherwise 'heralding' leaves heralded photon in a mixed state{{Cite journal |last1=Mosley |first1=Peter J. |last2=Lundeen |first2=Jeff S. |last3=Smith |first3=Brian J. |last4=Wasylczyk |first4=Piotr |last5=U’Ren |first5=Alfred B. |last6=Silberhorn |first6=Christine |last7=Walmsley |first7=Ian A. |date=2008-04-03 |title=Heralded Generation of Ultrafast Single Photons in Pure Quantum States |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.133601 |journal=Physical Review Letters |language=en |volume=100 |issue=13 |pages=133601 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.133601 |pmid=18517952 |arxiv=0711.1054 |bibcode=2008PhRvL.100m3601M |s2cid=21174398 |issn=0031-9007}}). The two photons need not generally be the same wavelength, but the total energy and resulting polarisation are defined by the generation process.

One area of keen interest for such pairs of photons is quantum key distribution.

The heralded single-photon sources are also used to examine the fundamental physics laws in quantum mechanics. There are two commonly used types of heralded single-photon sources: spontaneous parametric down-conversion and spontaneous four-wave mixing. The first source has line-width around THz and the second one has line-width around MHz or narrower. The heralded single photon has been used to demonstrate photonics storage and loading to the optical cavity.