single crystal

Although current methods are extremely sophisticated with modern technology, the origins of crystal growth can be traced back to salt purification by crystallization in 2500 BCE. A more advanced method using an aqueous solution was started in 1600 CE while the melt and vapor methods began around 1850 CE.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-46271-4_29 |chapter=Growing Single Crystals |title=Ceramic Materials |year=2007 |pages=507–526 |isbn=978-0-387-46270-7 |s2cid=240461586 }}

File:Single Crystal Growth Methods Flow Chart .png

Basic crystal growth methods can be separated into four categories based on what they are artificially grown from: melt, solid, vapor, and solution. Specific techniques to produce large single crystals (aka boules) include the Czochralski process (CZ), Floating zone (or Zone Movement), and the Bridgman technique. Dr. Teal and Dr. Little of Bell Telephone Laboratories were the first to use the Czochralski method to create Ge and Si single crystals.Teal, G.K. and Little, J.B. (1950) “Growth of germanium single crystals,” Phys. Rev. 78, 647. Teal and Little of Bell Telephone Laboratories were the first to produce single crystals of Ge and Si by the Cz method. Cited in {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-46271-4_29 |chapter=Growing Single Crystals |title=Ceramic Materials |year=2007 |pages=507–526 |isbn=978-0-387-46270-7 |s2cid=240461586 }} Other methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including hydrothermal synthesis, sublimation, or simply solvent-based crystallization.{{cite book |doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-63303-3.00026-2 |chapter=Thermal Stress and Dislocations in Bulk Crystal Growth |title=Handbook of Crystal Growth |year=2015 |last1=Miyazaki |first1=Noriyuki |pages=1049–1092 |isbn=9780444633033 }} For example, a modified Kyropoulos method can be used to grow high quality 300 kg sapphire single crystals.Zalozhny, Eugene (Jul 13th, 2015). "Monocrystal enables high-volume LED and optical applications with 300-kg KY sapphire crystals". LED's Magazine. Retrieved February 27, 2021. The Verneuil method, also called the flame-fusion method, was used in the early 1900s to make rubies before CZ. The diagram on the right illustrates most of the conventional methods. There have been new breakthroughs such as chemical vapor depositions (CVD) along with different variations and tweaks to the existing methods. These are not shown in the diagram.

Image:Quartz synthese.jpg bar grown by the hydrothermal method]]

In the case of metal single crystals, fabrication techniques also include epitaxy and abnormal grain growth in solids.{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Sunghwan |last2=Ruoff |first2=Rodney S. |title=Preparation and uses of large area single crystal metal foils |journal=APL Materials |date=1 October 2019 |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=100905 |doi=10.1063/1.5114861 |s2cid=208729868 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019APLM....7j0905J }} Epitaxy is used to deposit very thin (micrometer to nanometer scale) layers of the same or different materials on the surface of an existing single crystal.{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Kai |last2=Pitner |first2=Xue Bai |last3=Yang |first3=Rui |last4=Nix |first4=William D. |last5=Plummer |first5=James D. |last6=Fan |first6=Jonathan A. |title=Single-crystal metal growth on amorphous insulating substrates |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=23 January 2018 |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=685–689 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1717882115 |pmid=29311332 |pmc=5789947 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018PNAS..115..685Z }} Applications of this technique lie in the areas of semiconductor production, with potential uses in other nanotechnological fields and catalysis.{{Cite web|title=Single Crystal Substrates – Alfa Chemistry|url=https://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/single-crystal-substrates-123.htm|access-date=2021-03-11|website=www.alfa-chemistry.com}}

It is extremely difficult to grow single crystals of the polymers. It is mainly because that the polymer chains are of different length and due to the various entropy reasons. However, topochemical reactions are one of the easy methods to get single crystals of the polymer.[https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2013/cs/c2cs35343a]

One of the most used single crystals is that of Silicon in the semiconductor industry. The four main production methods for semiconductor single crystals are from metallic solutions: liquid phase epitaxy (LPE), liquid phase electroepitaxy (LPEE), the traveling heater method (THM), and liquid phase diffusion (LPD).{{Citation|last1=Dost|first1=Sadik|title=Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION|date=2007-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978044452232050002X|work=Single Crystal Growth of Semiconductors from Metallic Solutions|pages=3–14|editor-last=Dost|editor-first=Sadik|place=Amsterdam|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-044452232-0/50002-x|isbn=978-0-444-52232-0|access-date=2021-03-11|last2=Lent|first2=Brian|editor2-last=Lent|editor2-first=Brian|url-access=subscription}} However, there are many other single crystals besides inorganic single crystals capable semiconducting, including single-crystal organic semiconductors.

File:Tantalum single crystal and 1cm3 cube.jpg single crystal, made by the floating zone process, some single crystalline fragments of tantalum, and a high-purity (99.99% = 4N) 1 cm³ tantalum cube for comparison.]]

Monocrystalline silicon used in the fabrication of semiconductors and photovoltaics is the greatest use of single-crystal technology today.{{Citation|last=Kearns|first=Joel K.|title=2 – Silicon single crystals|date=2019-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081020968000021|work=Single Crystals of Electronic Materials|pages=5–56|editor-last=Fornari|editor-first=Roberto|series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-102096-8.00002-1|isbn=978-0-08-102096-8|s2cid=139380571 |access-date=2021-03-11|url-access=subscription}} In photovoltaics, the most efficient crystal structure will yield the highest light-to-electricity conversion."CZ-Si Wafers – Nanografi". nanografi.com. Retrieved 2021-02-28. On the quantum scale that microprocessors operate on, the presence of grain boundaries would have a significant impact on the functionality of field effect transistors by altering local electrical properties.{{Citation|title=Chapter 3 – The Current Situation in Ultra-Precision Technology – Silicon Single Crystals as an Example|date=2012-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978143777859500003X|journal=Advances in CMP Polishing Technologies|pages=15–111|editor-last=Doi|editor-first=Toshiro|place=Oxford|publisher=William Andrew Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-1-4377-7859-5.00003-x|isbn=978-1-4377-7859-5|access-date=2021-03-11|editor2-last=Marinescu|editor2-first=Ioan D.|editor3-last=Kurokawa|editor3-first=Syuhei|url-access=subscription}} Therefore, microprocessor fabricators have invested heavily in facilities to produce large single crystals of silicon. The Czochralski method and floating zone are popular methods for the growth of Silicon crystals.{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-63303-3.00002-X |chapter=Czochralski Growth of Silicon Crystals |title=Handbook of Crystal Growth |year=2015 |last1=Friedrich |first1=Jochen |last2=von Ammon |first2=Wilfried |last3=Müller |first3=Georg |pages=45–104 |isbn=9780444633033 }}

File:ClPhCz monokristall.jpg

Other inorganic semiconducting single crystals include GaAs, GaP, GaSb, Ge, InAs, InP, InSb, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe. Most of these can also be tuned with various doping for desired properties.{{Cite web|title=Semiconductor Single Crystals|url=https://princetonscientific.com/materials/semiconductor-single-crystals/|access-date=2021-02-08|website=Princeton Scientific|language=en}} Single-crystal graphene is also highly desired for applications in electronics and optoelectronics with its large carrier mobility and high thermal conductivity, and remains a topic of fervent research.{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=Teng|last2=Ren|first2=Wencai|last3=Zhang|first3=Xiuyun|last4=Liu|first4=Zhibo|last5=Gao|first5=Yang|last6=Yin|first6=Li-Chang|last7=Ma|first7=Xiu-Liang|last8=Ding|first8=Feng|last9=Cheng|first9=Hui-Ming|date=2013|title=Edge-controlled growth and kinetics of single-crystal graphene domains by chemical vapor deposition|url= |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=110|issue=51|pages=20386–20391|doi=10.1073/pnas.1312802110|jstor=23761563|pmid=24297886|pmc=3870701|bibcode=2013PNAS..11020386M |doi-access=free}} One of the main challenges has been growing uniform single crystals of bilayer or multilayer graphene over large areas; epitaxial growth and the new CVD (mentioned above) are among the new promising methods under investigation.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Meihui |last2=Luo |first2=Da |last3=Wang |first3=Bin |last4=Ruoff |first4=Rodney S. |title=Synthesis of Large-Area Single-Crystal Graphene |journal=Trends in Chemistry |date=January 2021 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |doi=10.1016/j.trechm.2020.10.009 |s2cid=229501087 |url=https://scholarworks.unist.ac.kr/handle/201301/49856 |doi-access=free }}

Organic semiconducting single crystals are different from the inorganic crystals. The weak intermolecular bonds mean lower melting temperatures, and higher vapor pressures and greater solubility.{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Panpan |last2=Zhen |first2=Yonggang |last3=Dong |first3=Huanli |last4=Hu |first4=Wenping |title=Crystal Engineering of Organic Optoelectronic Materials |journal=Chem |date=November 2019 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=2814–2853 |doi=10.1016/j.chempr.2019.08.019 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Chem....5.2814Y }} For single crystals to grow, the purity of the material is crucial and the production of organic materials usually require many steps to reach the necessary purity.{{cite journal |last1=Chou |first1=Li-Hui |last2=Na |first2=Yaena |last3=Park |first3=Chung-Hyoi |last4=Park |first4=Min Soo |last5=Osaka |first5=Itaru |last6=Kim |first6=Felix Sunjoo |last7=Liu |first7=Cheng-Liang |title=Semiconducting small molecule/polymer blends for organic transistors |journal=Polymer |date=March 2020 |volume=191 |pages=122208 |doi=10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122208 |s2cid=213570529 }} Extensive research is being done to look for materials that are thermally stable with high charge-carrier mobility. Past discoveries include naphthalene, tetracene, and 9,10-diphenylanthacene (DPA).{{cite journal |last1=Tripathi |first1=A. K. |last2=Heinrich |first2=M. |last3=Siegrist |first3=T. |last4=Pflaum |first4=J. |title=Growth and Electronic Transport in 9,10-Diphenylanthracene Single Crystals—An Organic Semiconductor of High Electron and Hole Mobility |journal=Advanced Materials |date=17 August 2007 |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=2097–2101 |doi=10.1002/adma.200602162 |bibcode=2007AdM....19.2097T |s2cid=97631495 }} Triphenylamine derivatives have shown promise, and recently in 2021, the single-crystal structure of α-phenyl-4′-(diphenylamino)stilbene (TPA) grown using the solution method exhibited even greater potential for semiconductor use with its anisotropic hole transport property.{{cite journal |last1=Matsuda |first1=Shofu |last2=Ito |first2=Masamichi |last3=Itagaki |first3=Chikara |last4=Imakubo |first4=Tatsuro |last5=Umeda |first5=Minoru |title=Characterization of α-phenyl-4′-(diphenylamino)stilbene single crystal and its anisotropic conductivity |journal=Materials Science and Engineering: B |date=February 2021 |volume=264 |pages=114949 |doi=10.1016/j.mseb.2020.114949 |doi-access=free }}

{{Expand section|date=April 2009}}

Image:KDP crystal.jpg, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, crystal grown from a seed crystal in a supersaturated aqueous solution at LLNL which is to be cut into slices and used on the National Ignition Facility for frequency doubling and tripling.|182x182px]]Single crystals have unique physical properties due to being a single grain with molecules in a strict order and no grain boundaries. This includes optical properties, and single crystals of silicon is also used as optical windows because of its transparency at specific infrared (IR) wavelengths, making it very useful for some instruments.

Sapphires: Also known as the alpha phase of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) to scientists, sapphire single crystals are widely used in hi-tech engineering. It can be grown from gaseous, solid, or solution phases. The diameter of the crystals resulting from the growth method are important when considering electronic uses after. They are used for lasers and nonlinear optics. Some notable uses are as in the window of a biometric fingerprint reader, optical disks for long-term data storage, and X-ray interferometer.{{Cite book |last1=Fornari |first1=Roberto |title=Single Crystals of Electronic Materials : Growth and Properties |date=2018 |publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology |isbn=978-0-08-102097-5 |location=San Diego |oclc=1055046791 }}{{pn|date=November 2022}}

Indium Phosphide: These single crystals are particularly appropriate for combining optoelectronics with high-speed electronics in the form of optical fiber with its large-diameter substrates.{{Cite web|title=Indium Phosphide PICs|url=https://www.neophotonics.com/technology/indium-phosphide-pics/|access-date=2021-03-12|website=100G Optical Components, Coherent, PIC, DWDM|language=en-US}} Other photonic devices include lasers, photodetectors, avalanche photo diodes, optical modulators and amplifiers, signal processing, and both optoelectronic and photonic integrated circuits.{{Cite book |last=Fornari |first=Roberto |title=Single crystals of electronic materials : growth and properties |date=18 September 2018 |publisher=Woodhead |isbn=978-0-08-102097-5 |oclc=1054250691 }}{{pn|date=November 2022}}

File:Aluminum oxide cristals (corundum).jpg

Germanium: This was the material in the first transistor invented by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley in 1947. It is used in some gamma-ray detectors and infrared optics.{{cite conference |conference=31st Annual Technical Symposium on Optical and Optoelectronic Applied Sciences and Engineering |location=San Diego, California, United States |last1=Gafni |first1=G. |last2=Azoulay |first2=M. |last3=Shiloh |first3=C. |last4=Noter |first4=Y. |last5=Saya |first5=A. |last6=Galron |first6=H. |last7=Roth |first7=M. |editor-first1=Irving J. |editor-last1=Spiro |title=Large Diameter Germanium Single Crystals For IR Optics |series=Infrared Technology XIII |date=10 November 1987 |volume=0819 |pages=96 |doi=10.1117/12.941806 |bibcode=1987SPIE..819...96G |s2cid=136334692 }} Now it has become the focus of ultrafast electronic devices for its intrinsic carrier mobility.

Arsenide: Arsenide III can be combined with various elements such as B, Al, Ga, and In, with the GaAs compound being in high demand for wafers.

Cadmium Telluride: CdTe crystals have several applications as substrates for IR imaging, electrooptic devices, and solar cells.{{cite journal |last1=Belas |first1=E. |last2=Uxa |first2=Š. |last3=Grill |first3=R. |last4=Hlídek |first4=P. |last5=Šedivý |first5=L. |last6=Bugár |first6=M. |title=High temperature optical absorption edge of CdTe single crystal |journal=Journal of Applied Physics |date=14 September 2014 |volume=116 |issue=10 |pages=103521 |doi=10.1063/1.4895494 |bibcode=2014JAP...116j3521B }} By alloying CdTe and ZnTe together room-temperature X-ray and gamma-ray detectors can be made.

Metals can be produced in single-crystal form and provide a means to understand the ultimate performance of metallic conductors. It is vital for understanding the basic science such as catalytic chemistry, surface physics, electrons, and monochromators.{{Cite web|title=Pure Element Single Crystals – Alfa Chemistry|url=https://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/pure-element-single-crystals-122.htm|access-date=2021-02-28|website=www.alfa-chemistry.com}} Production of metallic single crystals have the highest quality requirements and are grown, or pulled, in the form of rods.{{Cite web|title=Scientists blow hot and cold to produce single-crystal metal|url=https://www.materialstoday.com/metals-alloys/news/scientists-produce-singlecrystal-metal/|access-date=2021-03-12|website=Materials Today}} Certain companies can produce specific geometries, grooves, holes, and reference faces along with varying diameters.

Of all the metallic elements, silver and copper have the best conductivity at room temperature, setting the bar for performance.{{Cite web|title=TIBTECH innovations: Metal properties comparison: electric conductivity, thermal conductivity, density, melting temperature|url=https://www.tibtech.com/conductivite.php?lang=en_US|access-date=2021-03-12|website=www.tibtech.com}} The size of the market, and vagaries in supply and cost, have provided strong incentives to seek alternatives or find ways to use less of them by improving performance.

The conductivity of commercial conductors is often expressed relative to the International Annealed Copper Standard, according to which the purest copper wire available in 1914 measured around 100%. The purest modern copper wire is a better conductor, measuring over 103% on this scale. The gains are from two sources. First, modern copper is more pure. However, this avenue for improvement seems at an end. Making the copper purer still makes no significant improvement. Second, annealing and other processes have been improved. Annealing reduces the dislocations and other crystal defects which are sources of resistance. But the resulting wires are still polycrystalline. The grain boundaries and remaining crystal defects are responsible for some residual resistance. This can be quantified and better understood by examining single crystals.

Single-crystal copper did prove to have better conductivity than polycrystalline copper.{{cite journal|last=Cho|first=Yong Chan |author2=Seunghun Lee |author3=Muhammad Ajmal |author4=Won-Kyung Kim |author5=Chae Ryong Cho |author6=Se-Young Jeong |author7=Jeung Hun Park |author8=Sang Eon Park |author9=Sungkyun Park |author10=Hyuk-Kyu Pak |author11=Hyoung Chan Kim |title=Copper Better than Silver: Electrical Resistivity of the Grain-Free Single-Crystal Copper Wire|journal=Crystal Growth & Design|date= March 22, 2010|volume=10|issue=6 |pages=2780–2784|doi=10.1021/cg1003808}}

However, the single-crystal copper not only became a better conductor than high purity polycrystalline silver, but with prescribed heat and pressure treatment could surpass even single-crystal silver. Although impurities are usually bad for conductivity, a silver single crystal with a small amount of copper substitutions proved to be the best.

As of 2009, no single-crystal copper is manufactured on a large scale industrially, but methods of producing very large individual crystal sizes for copper conductors are exploited for high performance electrical applications. These can be considered meta-single crystals with only a few crystals per meter of length.

File:Pigtail from Single Crystal Blade Casting shown with Kennedy Half Dollar for size comparison.jpg

Whilst the absence of grain boundaries decreases yield strength, this is offset by a reduction in thermal creep, making single-crystal solids ideal for high temperature, close tolerance part applications, such as turbine blades.Spittle, Peter. [http://users.encs.concordia.ca/~kadem/Rolls%20Royce.pdf "Gas turbine technology"] Rolls-Royce plc, 2003. Retrieved: 21 July 2012.[http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/feb06/features/crjewels/crjewels.html Crown jewels – These crystals are the gems of turbine efficiency] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325003415/http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/feb06/features/crjewels/crjewels.html|date=2010-03-25}} Article on single-crystal turbine blades memagazine.com Researcher Barry Piearcey found that a right-angle bend at the casting mold would decrease the number of columnar crystals and later, scientist Giamei used this to start the blade's single-crystal structure.{{Cite web |date=2017-02-06 |title=Each Blade a Single Crystal |url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/each-blade-a-single-crystal |access-date=2021-02-08 |website=American Scientist |language=en}}

Single crystals are essential in research especially condensed-matter physics and all aspects of materials science such as surface science. The detailed study of the crystal structure of a material by techniques such as Bragg diffraction and helium atom scattering is easier with single crystals because it is possible to study directional dependence of various properties and compare with theoretical predictions.{{Cite web|title=Silver Single Crystal|url=https://www.materialshub.com/material/silver-single-crystal-2/|access-date=2021-03-12|website=Materials Hub|language=en-GB}} Furthermore, macroscopically averaging techniques such as angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy or low-energy electron diffraction are only possible or meaningful on surfaces of single crystals.{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Ke|last2=Ecker|first2=Ben|last3=Gao|first3=Yongli|date=September 2020|title=Angle-Resolved Photoemission Study on the Band Structure of Organic Single Crystals|journal=Crystals|language=en|volume=10|issue=9|pages=773|doi=10.3390/cryst10090773|doi-access=free}}{{Cite web|date=2015-02-11|title=6.2: Low Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED)|url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Surface_Science_(Nix)/06%3A_Overlayer_Structures_and_Surface_Diffraction/6.02%3A_Low_Energy_Electron_Diffraction_(LEED)|access-date=2021-03-12|website=Chemistry LibreTexts|language=en}} Single crystals are further well-suited to investigate material-inherent properties using surface-sensitive techniques, as they are much less affected by preparation methods than thin films.{{cite journal |last1=Kammlander |first1=Birgit |last2=García-Fernández |first2=Alberto |last3=Svanström |first3=Sebastian |last4=Giangrisostomi |first4=Erika |last5=Ovsyannikov |first5=Ruslan |last6=Rensmo |first6=Håkan |last7=Cappel |first7=Ute B |title=Investigating charge dynamics at lead halide perovskite single crystal surfaces |journal=Journal of Physics: Energy |date=30 April 2025 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=025005 |doi=10.1088/2515-7655/ada63a |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2515-7655/ada63a |issn=2515-7655}} In superconductivity there have been cases of materials where superconductivity is only seen in single-crystalline specimen.{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Jiasheng |last2=Gamża |first2=Monika B. |last3=Banda |first3=Jacintha |last4=Murphy |first4=Keiron |last5=Tarrant |first5=James |last6=Brando |first6=Manuel |last7=Grosche |first7=F. Malte |title=Unconventional Bulk Superconductivity in YFe 2 Ge 2 Single Crystals |journal=Physical Review Letters |date=30 November 2020 |volume=125 |issue=23 |pages=237002 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.237002 |pmid=33337220 |s2cid=220793188 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/321630 |arxiv=2007.13584 }} They may be grown for this purpose, even when the material is otherwise only needed in polycrystalline form.

As such, numerous new materials are being studied in their single-crystal form. The young field of metal-organic-frameworks (MOFs) is one of many which qualify to have single crystals. In January 2021 Dr. Dong and Dr. Feng demonstrated how polycyclic aromatic ligands can be optimized to produce large 2D MOF single crystals of sizes up to 200 μm. This could mean scientists can fabricate single-crystal devices and determine intrinsic electrical conductivity and charge transport mechanism.{{cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Renhao |last2=Feng |first2=Xinliang |title=Making large single crystals of 2D MOFs |journal=Nature Materials |date=February 2021 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=122–123 |doi=10.1038/s41563-020-00912-1 |pmid=33504985 |bibcode=2021NatMa..20..122D |s2cid=231745364 }}

The field of photodriven transformation can also be involved with single crystals with something called single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SCSC) transformations. These provide direct observation of molecular movement and understanding of mechanistic details.{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Sheng-Li |last2=Hor |first2=T.S. Andy |last3=Jin |first3=Guo-Xin |title=Photodriven single-crystal-to-single-crystal transformation |journal=Coordination Chemistry Reviews |date=September 2017 |volume=346 |pages=112–122 |doi=10.1016/j.ccr.2016.06.009 |doi-access=free }} This photoswitching behavior has also been observed in cutting-edge research on intrinsically non-photo-responsive mononuclear lanthanide single-molecule-magnets (SMM).{{cite journal |last1=Hojorat |first1=Maher |last2=Al Sabea |first2=Hassan |last3=Norel |first3=Lucie |last4=Bernot |first4=Kevin |last5=Roisnel |first5=Thierry |last6=Gendron |first6=Frederic |last7=Guennic |first7=Boris Le |last8=Trzop |first8=Elzbieta |last9=Collet |first9=Eric |last10=Long |first10=Jeffrey R. |last11=Rigaut |first11=Stéphane |title=Hysteresis Photomodulation via Single-Crystal-to-Single-Crystal Isomerization of a Photochromic Chain of Dysprosium Single-Molecule Magnets |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |date=15 January 2020 |volume=142 |issue=2 |pages=931–936 |doi=10.1021/jacs.9b10584 |pmid=31880442 |s2cid=209490756 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02432642/file/Hojora%20et%20al-2020-Hysteresis%20Photomodulation%20via%20Single-Crystal-to-Single-Crystal%20Isomerization.pdf }}

• Engineering aspects of crystallisation
• Fractional crystallization
• Laser-heated pedestal growth
• Micro-pulling-down
• Recrystallization
• Seed crystal

{{reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181456/http://acaschool.iit.edu/lectures04/JLiangXtal.pdf "Small Molecule Crystallization"] (PDF) at Illinois Institute of Technology website

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Single Crystal}}

Category:Crystals