slip casting

The technique was first developed in China during the Tang dynasty (618–917), but was relatively little-used in China until recent times{{When|date=April 2024}}.David W. Richerson, American Ceramic Society, The Magic of Ceramics, p. 41, 2012, Wiley, ISBN 9780470638057, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rd8O5yvoXloC&pg=PA41 google books] It seems to have been reinvented independently in England around 1745 "reputedly by Ralph Daniels of Corbridge",Savage, George, and Newman, Harold, An Illustrated Dictionary of Ceramics, p. 265, 1985, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500273804 and before long was widely used by European porcelain manufacturers, and then became the main forming technique for sanitaryware by the end of the century.

Solid casting is used to produce solid articles, such as cup handles; for this the mold frequently includes a reservoir of excess slip. Hollow casting is used to produce articles such as teapots.'Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control.' W. Ryan, C. Radford. Pergamon Press, 1987.

The properties of a casting slip depends on multiple factors, including:'Sanitaryware Technology'. Domenico Fortuna. Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice S.p.A. 2000.

• the properties of each raw material in the slip,
• the solids content of the slip,
• the clay:non-plastic ratio in the slip,
• the chemicals in the slip, either deliberately added or introduced from the raw materials and water,
• the type and amount of deflocculant,
• the ambient conditions, especially temperature and humidity, and
• the amount of energy involved in mixing the raw materials to prepare the slip.

Additionally, factors affecting the rate of formation of the cast piece include:{{cite web |title=Reference Guide To Making and Adjusting Casting Slip |url=https://www.theceramicshop.com/content/423/Casting-Slip-Guide/ |website=The Ceramic Shop |access-date=16 October 2021}}

• the viscosity and thixotropy of the slip, which are invariably modified immediately before casting,
• properties of the mold material, such as permeability, and
• moisture content of the mould.

File:Slip casting principle.png

The casting slip is poured into a porous mould. Due to capillary pressure from the mold, a semi-solid particulate layer is formed on the mould through deposition of the solids in the slip. After a period of time, determined in advance by testing, the cast piece is removed from the mold; the cast needs to be sufficiently firm to handle without damage. The cast piece may then be fettled to remove the mold seam, before being dried to remove the remaining water. This typically results in a greenware piece which is then ready for subsequent processing, including glazing and firing.

Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control.' W. Ryan, C. Radford. Pergamon Press, 1987.{{cite book |last1=Osborne |first1=Harold |title=The Oxford companion to the decorative arts |date=1975 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0198661134 |page=746}}

File:Gladstone mould making tea pot 3839.JPG

File:Sèvres - grand coulage 11.jpg

A lavatory closet typically takes around 40 to 60 minutes to cast using the conventional technique,'Materials And Equipment – Whitewares. Volume 13, Issue 1/2. J. B. Wachtman. Wiley & Sons. Pg. 402'Effect Of The Physical Properties Of Slip On The Molding Of Commercial Grade Sanitary Ware' V.V. Mikhalev, V.V. Serov, A.S. Glass and Ceramics, 64(3-4), 129–131, 2007. Pg. 131 with a Swiss manufacturer noting that "preparing the mould and casting a single piece can take up to 40 minutes."{{cite web | url=https://www.laufen.com/news-stories/earth-water-fire_laufen | title=125 years | Design & Innovation }} Thinner sections will be quicker, with one source advising 5–10 mm taking 10–15 minutes.with a

https://www.laufen.com/news-stories/earth-water-fire_laufen

[https://www.materialseducation.org/educators/matedu-modules/docs/Slip_Casting.pdf]

Casting times for ceramic tableware have been reported as 35 to 60 minutes for earthenware and 8 to 20 minutes for bone china.’The Control Of Casting Slip: A Survey Of Current Casting Practice In The Tableware Industry’ RP.749. Ceram Research, 1987 Other reports include: 30–50 minutes at a US studio pottery; around 60 minutes at a small Portuguese manufacturer of decorative ceramics; "approximately 15 minutes" from a US distance learning university; 15–20 minutes in an article for studio potters; and 15–45 minutes in a guide for beginners.{{cite web | url=https://www.thecrucible.org/slip-casting-in-five-steps/ | title=You Will be Slip Casting Ceramics with These 5 Easy Steps | date=9 October 2019 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.sporvil.com/blog/slip-casting-of-ceramics/ | title=All you need to know about Slip Casting of Ceramics (We do it everyday!) | date=7 November 2019 }}{{cite web | url=https://theartofeducation.edu/2015/04/13/a-simple-step-by-step-guide-to-slip-casting/ | title=A Simple Step-by-Step Guide to Slip Casting | date=13 April 2015 }}'In The Studio: Mixing Casting Slip: Tips and Tricks' D. S. Smith. Pottery Making Illustrated. Nov/Dec 2020‘Ceramics: A Beginner’s Guide To Tools And Techniques’ E. Landberger, M. Lundin. Allworth Press, 2012

Casting times are notably shorter by pressure casting, with 2 minutes reported for tableware bowls and dishes, and 6–8 minutes for sanitaryware.’A Comparison Of Plaster Casting And Pressure Casting Of Sanitaryware With Particular Reference To Clay Properties’ C. Hogg. Ceramics International. Volume 11, Issue 1, 1985, Pg. 32 The cycle time per piece of sanitaryware using high pressure at Duravit is reported to be 20 minutes.{{cite web | url=https://ceramicworldweb.com/en/news/duravit-makes-new-investments-high-pressure-casting | title=Duravit makes new investments in high-pressure casting | date=13 February 2017 }}

To achieve an acceptable rate of cast formation and minimize drying shrinkage, a slip with a high content of solids is needed. The generally-accepted solids content of a Vitreous China sanitaryware casting slip ranges between 72 and 75% by weight, which corresponds to slip densities of 1.80–1.85 g/cm³.'Ceramics, Glass and Glass-Ceramics – From Early Manufacturing Steps Towards Modern Frontiers' F. Baino, M. Tomalino, D. Tulyaganov. Springer International Publishing, 2021

Certain chemicals, known as deflocculants, are used to disperse agglomerates in the slip, and so decrease the viscosity and also allow a higher solids content; the latter is important to minimize drying shrinkage. Examples of deflocculants include sodium carbonate and sodium silicate.{{cite book |last1=Gadow |first1=Rainer |last2=Kern |first2=Frank |title=Comprehensive Hard Materials |date=1 January 2014 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-096528-4 |pages=207–230 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-096527-7.00025-8 |language=en |chapter=2.06 - Advanced Manufacturing of Hard Ceramics|doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-096527-7.00025-8 }}{{cite web |last1=Wandless |first1=Paul Andrew |title=How to Make Casting Slip from Your Clay Body - A Simple Technique |url=https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/daily/article/How-to-Transform-Your-Clay-Body-into-a-Casting-Slip |website=Ceramic Arts Network Daily |access-date=16 October 2021 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Singer |first1=Felix |last2=Singer |first2=Sonja S. |title=Industrial Ceramics. |date=1971 |publisher=Chapman & Hall |location=London |isbn=9788120401624}} Typical deflocculant additions used for a Vitreous China casting slip are 0.1-0.65%; the rheological properties of the clay components are the main influencing factors for the dosage.'Ceramics, Glass and Glass-Ceramics - From Early Manufacturing Steps Towards Modern Frontiers' F. Baino, M. Tomalino, D. Tulyaganov. Springer International Publishing, 2021

A mathematical formula developed by Alexandre Brongniart of Sèvres Porcelain is used to determine the dry material content of the slip. This has become to be known as Brongniart's formula.

Pressure casting is a development of traditional slipcasting which was developed in the 1970s for the production of sanitaryware and more recently has been applied to tableware.{{cite web |url=http://www.ceramicindustry.com/Articles/Feature_Article/4025c9fbcb9c7010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0____ |title=Ceramicindustry.com |website=Ceramic industries.com |date=2000-11-21 |access-date=2010-09-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708132727/http://www.ceramicindustry.com/Articles/Feature_Article/4025c9fbcb9c7010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0____ |archive-date=2011-07-08 }}Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994.

Specially-developed polymeric materials allow a mold to be subject to application of external pressures up to 4.0 MPa; much higher than slip casting in plaster molds where the capillary forces correspond to a pressure of around 0.1–0.2 MPa.'Microstructure-Performance Relation in PMMA-Based Open-Cell Porous Materials for High Pressure Ceramic Sanitaryware Casting. Y. Ergün, C. Dirier, M. Yılmaz, C. Tokman, M. Tanoğlu. Key Engineering Materials. Trans Tech Publications, Ltd., May 2004 The high pressure leads to much faster casting rates and, hence, faster production cycles: one study found that by increasing the pressure from 0.25 to 4.0 bar (3.6 to 58 psi) decreased the casting time for a 6-mm cast of a porcelain body from about 45 to 15 min.'Modern Ceramic Engineering' 3rd. edition. D.W.Richerson. CRC Press. 2005. Pg. 436 Using pressure casting, a Geberit factory in Finland casts a toilet in 20 minutes.{{cite web | url=https://www.geberit.com/insights/high-pressure-ceramic-production/ | title=High-pressure ceramic production }}

Furthermore, the application of high-pressure air through the polymeric molds upon demolding the cast means that a new casting cycle can be started immediately in the same mold, unlike plaster moulds which require lengthy drying times. The polymeric materials have much greater durability than plaster and, therefore, it is possible to achieve products with better dimensional tolerances and much longer mold life.{{cite web |url=http://www.dorst.de/dorst_seite/Infolines_PDF/Infoline%20DGM/DGM-E.pdf |title=DGM-E.pdf |access-date=2010-09-04 }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

Advantages of pressure casting over conventional casting have been summarized as higher productivity, higher yield, improved ware quality, lower distortion of the cast piece, reduced surface defects, reduced production space, reduced demand for molds, reduced energy costs, and readily fitting with the automation of demolding and handling.’Clays For Pressure Casting Sanitaryware’ Brian Waters. Ceramic Forum International. Cfi/Ber. 89 (2012) No.1. Pg. E19

As a processing technique for ceramic laminates, a ceramic powder is often placed in suspension to form a slip with a high solids content (>60 wt%) as well as a very low viscosity value (<40 mPa). A series of layers can be formed by changing the composition of the slips used in repeated castings. If the chemistry of the materials being used is well understood, the thickness of the layers can be controlled by varying the length of time involved in the casting.{{cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Helen M. |title=LAYERED CERAMICS: Processing and Mechanical Behavior |journal=Annual Review of Materials Science |date=August 1997 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=249–282 |doi=10.1146/annurev.matsci.27.1.249 |bibcode=1997AnRMS..27..249C |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.matsci.27.1.249 |access-date=15 October 2021 |issn=0084-6600|url-access=subscription }}

Slip-cast ware, objects that are formed using slip casting, should not be confused with slipware, pottery that is formed by any technique and then decorated using slip.{{cite book |last1=Hamer |first1=Frank |last2=Hamer |first2=Janet |title=The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques |date=23 June 2004 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-3810-5 |pages=333–334 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhvlCeVL4dwC&pg=PA334 |access-date=16 October 2021 |language=en}} The French for slip is barbotine (coulée en barbotine means slip casting). As far back as the Roman Empire, potters created what is termed "Barbotine ware" by using clay slip to decorate the surface of pots.{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=Emmanuel |title=Ten Thousand Years of Pottery |date=2000 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-3554-8 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zBzkmRVQ2tYC&pg=PA52 |access-date=16 October 2021 |language=en}} "Barbotine pottery" is sometimes used for 19th-century French and American pottery with added slip cast decoration,{{cite book |last1=Frelinghuysen |first1=Alice Cooney |last2=Eidelberg |first2=Martin |last3=Spinozzi |first3=Adrienne |title=American Art Pottery: The Robert A. Ellison Jr. Collection |date=25 September 2018 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |location=New York |isbn=978-1-58839-596-2 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQduDwAAQBAJ |language=en}} as well as (confusingly) 17th century English slipware that is decorated with thick blobs of slip.{{cite web |title=Pottery - 17th-century slipware |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/pottery/17th-century-slipware |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}

• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZzOTX9Ihqs Conventional slip casting]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7WuTdJC2Sw Slip casting for the beginner]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1YCRs6QtEY Slip casting at the Emma Bridgewater factory in Stoke-On-Trent, England]
• [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=v5ai5riWPEQ Pressure casting of sanitaryware]
• [http://ceramics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Slip-Casting-Lesson-111.pdf Teacher's notes on slip casting by The American Ceramic Society]

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