slope stability

File:Landslide Böschungsrutschung.jpg

Slope stability refers to the condition of inclined soil or rock slopes to withstand or undergo movement; the opposite condition is called slope instability or slope failure. The stability condition of slopes is a subject of study and research in soil mechanics, geotechnical engineering, and engineering geology. Analyses are generally aimed at understanding the causes of an occurred slope failure, or the factors that can potentially trigger a slope movement, resulting in a landslide, as well as at preventing the initiation of such movement, slowing it down or arresting it through mitigation countermeasures.

The stability of a slope is essentially controlled by the ratio between the available shear strength and the acting shear stress, which can be expressed in terms of a safety factor if these quantities are integrated over a potential (or actual) sliding surface. A slope can be globally stable if the safety factor, computed along any potential sliding surface running from the top of the slope to its toe, is always larger than 1. The smallest value of the safety factor will be taken as representing the global stability condition of the slope. Similarly, a slope can be locally stable if a safety factor larger than 1 is computed along any potential sliding surface running through a limited portion of the slope (for instance only within its toe). Values of the global or local safety factors close to 1 (typically comprised between 1 and 1.3, depending on regulations) indicate marginally stable slopes that require attention, monitoring and/or an engineering intervention (slope stabilization) to increase the safety factor and reduce the probability of a slope movement.

A previously stable slope can be affected by a number of predisposing factors or processes that reduce stability - either by increasing the shear stress or by decreasing the shear strength - and can ultimately result in slope failure. Factors that can trigger slope failure include hydrologic events (such as intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, progressive soil saturation, increase of water pressure within the slope), earthquakes (including aftershocks), internal erosion (piping), surface or toe erosion, artificial slope loading (for instance due to the construction of a building), slope cutting (for instance to make space for roadways, railways, or buildings), or slope flooding (for instance by filling an artificial lake after damming a river).

Examples

File:Slopslump2.jpg

Earthen slopes can develop a cut-spherical weakness area. The probability of this happening can be calculated in advance using a simple 2-D circular analysis package.{{cite web |title=Slope Stability Calculator |url=https://www.wise-uranium.org/cssth.html |access-date=2006-12-14}} A primary difficulty with analysis is locating the most-probable slip plane for any given situation.{{cite journal |title=A method for locating critical slip surfaces in slope stability analysis: Discussion |journal=Canadian Geotechnical Journal |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=765–770 |year=2002 |last1=Chugh |first1=Ashok K. |doi=10.1139/t02-042 |url=https://zenodo.org/records/1235903}} Many landslides have only been analyzed after the fact. More recently slope stability radar technology has been employed, particularly in the mining industry, to gather real-time data and assist in determining the likelihood of slope failure.

Real-life failures in naturally deposited mixed soils are not necessarily circular but, prior to computers, it was far easier to analyze such a simplified geometry. Nevertheless, failures in 'pure' clay can be quite close to circular. Such slips often occur after a period of heavy rain, when the pore water pressure at the slip surface increases, reducing the effective normal stress and thus diminishing the restraining friction along the slip line. This is combined with increased soil weight due to the added groundwater. A 'shrinkage' crack (formed during prior dry weather) at the top of the slip may also fill with rain water, pushing the slip forward. At the other extreme, slab-shaped slips on hillsides can remove a layer of soil from the top of the underlying bedrock. Again, this is usually initiated by heavy rain, sometimes combined with increased loading from new buildings or removal of support at the toe (resulting from road widening or other construction work). Stability can thus be significantly improved by installing drainage paths to reduce the destabilizing forces. Once the slip has occurred, however, a weakness along the slip circle remains, which may then recur at the next monsoon.

Angle of repose

The angle of repose is related to the shear strength of geologic materials, which is relevant in construction and engineering contexts.{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Donghwi |last2=Nam |first2=Boo Hyun |last3=Youn |first3=Heejung |date=December 2018 |title=Effect of clay content on the shear strength of clay–sand mixture |journal=International Journal of Geo-Engineering |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=19 |issn=2092-9196 |doi=10.1186/s40703-018-0087-x |doi-access=free |s2cid=139312055}} For granular materials, the size and shape of grains can impact angle of repose significantly. As the roundness of materials increases, the angle of repose decreases since there is less friction between the soil grains.{{cite journal |last=Santamarina |first=J. Carlos |date=2003-01-13 |title=Soil Behavior at the Microscale: Particle Forces |journal=Soil Behavior and Soft Ground Construction |pages=25–56 |location=Reston, VA |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers |isbn=978-0-7844-0659-5 |doi=10.1061/40659(2003)2 |url=https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/40659%282003%292|url-access=subscription }}

When the angle of repose is exceeded, mass wasting and rockfall can occur. It is important for many civil and geotechnical engineers to know the angle of repose to avoid structural and natural disasters. As a result, the application of retaining walls can help to retain soil so that the angle of repose is not exceeded.{{cite journal |last1=Beakawi Al-Hashemi |first1=Hamzah M. |last2=Baghabra Al-Amoudi |first2=Omar S. |date=May 2018 |title=A review on the angle of repose of granular materials |journal=Powder Technology |language=en |volume=330 |pages=397–417 |doi=10.1016/j.powtec.2018.02.003 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032591018301153}}

The angle of repose and the stability of a slope are impacted by climatic and non-climatic factors.

=Water content=

Water content is an important parameter that could change the angle of repose. Reportedly, a higher water content can stabilize a slope and increase the angle of repose. However, water saturation can result in a decrease in the slope's stability since it acts as a lubricant and creates a detachment where mass wasting can occur.{{cite journal |vauthors=Balasubramanian A |year=2011 |title=MASS-WASTING |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.10405.50407 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309464879_MASS-WASTING}}

Water content is dependent on soil properties such as grain size, which can impact infiltration rate, runoff, and water retention. Generally, finer-grained soils rich in clay and silt retain more water than coarser sandy soils. This effect is mainly due to capillary action, where the adhesive forces between the fluid, particle, and the cohesive forces of the fluid itself counteract gravitational pull. Therefore, smaller grain size results in a smaller surface area on which gravitational forces can act. Smaller surface area also leads to more capillary action, more water retention, more infiltration, and less runoff.{{cite journal |last1=Kozicki |first1=J. |last2=Donzé |first2=F.V. |date=2009-10-09 |title=YADE‐OPEN DEM: an open‐source software using a discrete element method to simulate granular material |journal=Engineering Computations |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=786–805 |issn=0264-4401 |doi=10.1108/02644400910985170 |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/02644400910985170/full/html|url-access=subscription }}

=Vegetation=

The presence of vegetation does not directly impact the angle of repose, but it acts as a stabilizing factor in a hillslope, where the tree roots anchor into deeper soil layers and form a fiber‐reinforced soil composite with a higher shear resistance (mechanical cohesion).{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=John H. |last2=Fourcaud |first2=Thierry |last3=Jourdan |first3=Christophe |last4=Maeght |first4=Jean-Luc |last5=Mao |first5=Zhun |last6=Metayer |first6=James |last7=Meylan |first7=Louise |last8=Pierret |first8=Alain |last9=Rapidel |first9=Bruno |last10=Roupsard |first10=Olivier |last11=de Rouw |first11=Anneke |date=2017-05-28 |title=Vegetation as a driver of temporal variations in slope stability: The impact of hydrological processes: Variable Stability of Vegetated Slopes |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=4897–4907 |doi=10.1002/2017GL073174 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017GL073174|url-access=subscription }}

=Roundness of grains=

The shape of the grain can have an impact on the angle of repose and the stability of the slope. The more rounded the grain is, the lower the angle of repose. A decrease in roundness, or an increase in angularity, results in interlocking via particle contact. This linear relationship between the angle of repose and the roundness of grain can also be used as a predictor of the angle of repose if the roundness of the grain is measured.

Slope stabilization

Since the stability of the slope can be impacted by external events such as precipitation, an important concern in civil/geotechnical engineering is the stabilization of slopes.

=Application of vegetation=

The application of vegetation to increase the slope stability against erosion and landslide is a form of bioengineering that is widely used in areas where the landslide depth is shallow. Vegetation increases the stability of the slope mechanically, by reinforcing the soils through plant roots, which stabilize the upper part of the soil. Vegetation also stabilizes the slope via hydrologic processes, by the reduction of soil moisture content through the interception of precipitation and transpiration. This results in a drier soil that is less susceptible to mass wasting.{{cite journal |last1=Mulyono |first1=A |last2=Subardja |first2=A |last3=Ekasari |first3=I |last4=Lailati |first4=M |last5=Sudirja |first5=R |last6=Ningrum |first6=W |date=February 2018 |title=The Hydromechanics of Vegetation for Slope Stabilization |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=012038 |bibcode=2018E&ES..118a2038M |issn=1755-1307 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/118/1/012038 |doi-access=free |s2cid=134151880 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/118/1/012038}}

Stability of slopes can also be improved by:

Flattening of slopes results in reduction in weight which makes the slope more stable
Soil stabilization
Providing lateral supports by piles or retaining walls
Grouting or cement injections into specific zones
Consolidation by surcharging or electro osmosis increases the stability of slope

File:Slopslump2.jpg

Analysis methods

Mass classification and rating

{{Further|Slope mass rating|Rock mass rating|Rock mass classification}}

Various classification and rating systems exist for the design of slopes and to assess the stability of slopes. The systems are based on empirical relations between rock mass parameters and various slope parameters such as height and slope dip.

Probability classification

The slope stability probability classification (SSPC) system is a rock mass classification system for slope engineering and slope stability assessment. The system is a three-step classification: ‘exposure’, ‘reference’, and ‘slope’ rock mass classification with conversion factors between the three steps depending on existing and future weathering and depending on the damage incurred by excavation. The stability of a slope is expressed as the probability of different failure mechanisms.

A rock mass is classified following a standardized set of criteria in one or more exposures (‘exposure’ classification). These values are converted per exposure to a ‘reference’ rock mass, compensating for the degree of weathering in the exposure and excavation damage. A new slope can then be designed in the ‘reference’ rock mass with compensation anticipating further damage due to excavation and future weathering. If an existing slope's stability is assessed, the ‘exposure’ and ‘slope’ rock mass values are the same.

The failure mechanisms are divided into orientation dependent and orientation independent. Orientation dependent failure mechanisms depend on the orientation of the slope to the discontinuities in the rock mass, i.e., sliding (plane and wedge sliding) and toppling failure. Orientation independence relates to the possibility that a slope fails independently from its orientation, e.g., circular failure entirely through newly formed discontinuities in intact rock blocks or failing partially following existing and partially new discontinuities.

In addition, the shear strength along a discontinuity ('sliding criterion') and 'rock mass cohesion' and 'rock mass friction' can be determined. The system has been used directly or modified in various geology and climate environments worldwide. The system has been modified for slope stability assessment in open pit coal mining.

References

{{Reflist|

{{cite book |last1=Hack |first1=R. |date=1996 |title=Slope Stability Probability Classification (SSPC) |publisher=Technical University Delft & Twente University - International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC Enschede), Netherlands |series=ITC publication 43 |isbn=978-90-6164-154-4 |page=258 |url=https://webapps.itc.utwente.nl/librarywww/papers_1996/general/hack_slo.pdf}}

{{cite journal |last1=Hack |first1=R. |last2=Price |first2=D. |last3=Rengers |first3=N. |year=2003 |title=A new approach to rock slope stability – a probability classification (SSPC) |journal=Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment |volume=62 |number=2 |pages=167–184 |doi=10.1007/s10064-002-0155-4 |s2cid=140693335}}

{{cite journal |last1=Andrade |first1=P.S. |last2=Saraiva |first2=A.A. |year=2008 |title=Estimating the joint roughness coefficient of discontinuities found in metamorphic rocks |journal=Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment |volume=67 |issue=3, number 3 |pages=425–434 |doi=10.1007/s10064-008-0151-4 |hdl=10316/7611 |s2cid=129119508 |url=https://estudogeral.sib.uc.pt/bitstream/10316/7611/1/obra.pdf}}

{{cite journal |last1=Filipello |first1=A. |last2=Giuliani |first2=A. |last3=Mandrone |first3=G. |year=2010 |title=Rock Slopes Failure Susceptibility Analysis: From Remote Sensing Measurements to Geographic Information System Raster Modules |journal=American Journal of Environmental Sciences |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=489–494 |doi=10.3844/ajessp.2010.489.494 |doi-access=free}}

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|title=Rock Mass Classification of Karstic Terrain in the Reservoir Slopes of Tekeze Hydropower Project

|book-title=EGU General Assembly 2010

|place=Vienna, Austria

|date=May 2–7, 2010

|series=EGU2010-831, 2010

|volume=12

|pages=831

|url=https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2010/EGU2010-831.pdf

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|last8=Dahal |first8=R.K.

|year=2005

|title=Application of the SSPC system in some of the selected slopes along the trekking route from Jomsom to Kagbeni, central-west Nepal

|book-title=Natural disaster mitigation and issues on technology transfer in South and Southeast Asia; proceedings of the JICA Regional Seminar

|place=Kathmandu, Nepal

|editor-last=Yoshida |editor-first=M.

|editor2-last=Upreti |editor2-first=B.N.

|editor3-last=Bhattarai |editor3-first=T.N.

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{{Cite journal

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|last2=Campbellc |first2=R.N.

|last3=Fergussonc |first3=D.A.

|last4=Gillarda |first4=G.R.

|last5=Moore |first5=T.A.

|year=2001

|title=Slope stability probability classification, Waikato Coal Measures, New Zealand

|journal=International Journal of Coal Geology

|volume=45

|issue=2–3

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External links

Category:Landslide analysis, prevention and mitigation