sokushinbutsu

{{nihongo||{{linktext|即|身|仏}}|Sokushinbutsu}} is a type of Buddhist mummy. In Japan the term refers to the practice of Buddhist monks observing asceticism to the point of death and entering mummification while alive.Jeremiah, Ken. Living Buddhas: The Self-mummified Monks of Yamagata, Japan. McFarland, 2010{{Cite web|url=https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g02008/|title = "Sokushinbutsu": Japan's Buddhist Mummies|date = 26 January 2022}} Although mummified monks are seen in a number of Buddhist countries, especially in Southeast Asia where monks are mummified after dying of natural causes, it is only in Japan that monks are believed to have induced their own death by starvation.

There is a common suggestion that Shingon school founder Kukai brought this practice from Tang China as part of secret tantric practices he learned.{{cite web |url=http://www.agorajournal.org/2005/Lowe.pdf |title=Shingon Priests and Self-Mummification |year=2005 |author=Aaron Lowe |publisher=Agora Journal |access-date=2012-12-14 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829061915/http://www.agorajournal.org/2005/Lowe.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-29 }} During the 20th century, Japanese scholars found very little evidence of self-starvation of {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}}. They rather concluded that mummification took place after the demise of the monk practising this kind of asceticism, as seen in Southeast Asian lands.

Origin

There is at least one "self-mummified" 550-year-old corpse in existence: that of a Buddhist monk named Sangha Tenzin in a northern Himalayan region of India, visible in a temple in Gue village, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh.[http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20150501-a-500-year-old-mummy-with-teeth A 500 year old Mummy with teeth], BBC News This mummy was rediscovered in 1975 when the old stupa preserving it collapsed and it is estimated to be from about the 14th century. The monk was likely a Tibetan dzogpa-chenpo practitioner and similar mummies have been found in Tibet and East Asia.Ken Jeremiah (2010), Living Buddhas: The Self-mummified Monks of Yamagata, Japan, McFarland, pp. 36–37 The preservation of the mummy for at least five centuries was possible due to the aridity of the area and cold weather.

According to Paul Williams, the {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}} ascetic practices of Shugendō were likely inspired by Kūkai, the founder of Shingon Buddhism, who ended his life by reducing and then stopping intake of food and water, while continuing to meditate and chant Buddhist mantras. Ascetic self-mummification practices are also recorded in China and associated with the Chan tradition there.{{cite book|author=Paul Williams|title=Buddhism: Buddhism in China, East Asia, and Japan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHj5DWDJjnIC&pg=PA362 |year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-33234-7 |pages=362 with footnote 37 }} Alternate ascetic practices similar to {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}} are also known, such as public self-immolation practice in China. This was considered as evidence of a renunciant bodhisattva.{{cite book|author=James A. Benn|title=Burning for the Buddha: Self-Immolation in Chinese Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC |year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2992-6 |pages=112–114 }}

Japan

A mountain-dwelling religion called Shugendō emerged in Japan as a syncretism between Vajrayana Buddhism, Shinto and Taoism in the 7th century, which stressed ascetic practices.Ken Jeremiah (2010), Living Buddhas: The Self-mummified Monks of Yamagata, Japan. McFarland, pp. 10–11 One of these practices was {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}} (or {{transliteration|ja|sokushin jobutsu}}), connoting mountain austerities in order to attain Enlightenment in a single lifetime. This practice was perfected over a period of time, particularly in the Three Mountains of Dewa region of Japan, that is the Haguro, Gassan and Yudono mountains. These mountains remain sacred in the Shugendō tradition to this day, and ascetic austerities continue to be performed in the valleys and mountain range in this area.

In medieval Japan, this tradition developed a process for {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}}, which a monk completed over about 3,000 days. It involved a strict diet called {{transliteration|ja|mokujiki}} (literally, {{gloss|eating a tree}}). The monk abstained from any cereals and relied on pine needles, resins, and seeds found in the mountains, which would eliminate all fat in the body. Increasing rates of fasting and meditation would lead to starvation. The monks would slowly reduce then stop liquid intake, thus dehydrating the body and shrinking all organs. The monks would die in a state of jhana (meditation) while chanting the {{transliteration|ja|nenbutsu}} (a recitation of the Buddha Amitabha's Name in Remembrance of him), and their body would become naturally preserved as a mummy with skin and teeth intact without decay and without the need of any artificial preservatives.Ken Jeremiah (2010), Living Buddhas: The Self-mummified Monks of Yamagata, Japan, McFarland, pp. 11–14 Many Buddhist {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}} mummies have been found in northern Japan and are estimated to be centuries old, while texts suggest that hundreds of these cases are buried in the stupas and mountains of Japan.{{cite book|author=Tullio Federico Lobetti|title=Ascetic Practices in Japanese Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3W2_AAAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-47273-4 |pages=130–136 }} These mummies have been revered and venerated by the laypeople of Buddhism.

One of the altars in the Honmyō-ji temple of Yamagata Prefecture continues to preserve one of the oldest mummies—that of the {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}} ascetic named Honmyōkai.{{cite book|author=Tullio Federico Lobetti|title=Ascetic Practices in Japanese Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3W2_AAAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-47273-4 |pages=132–133 }} This process of self-mummification was mainly practiced in Yamagata in Northern Japan between the 11th and 19th century, by members of the Japanese Vajrayana school of Buddhism called Shingon ("True Word"). The practitioners of {{transliteration|ja|sokushinbutsu}} did not view this practice as an act of suicide, but rather as a form of further enlightenment.{{cite web|url=http://www.jref.com/japan/culture/religion/sokushinbutsu.shtml|title=Sokushinbutsu – Japanese Mummies|date=30 December 2011 |publisher=JapanReference.com |access-date=2013-09-30 }}

Emperor Meiji banned this practice in 1879. Assisted suicide—including religious suicide—is now illegal.

In popular culture

The practice was satirized in the story "The Destiny That Spanned Two Lifetimes" by Ueda Akinari, in which such a monk was found centuries later and resuscitated. The story appears in the collection {{transliteration|ja|Harusame Monogatari}}.Paul Gordon Schalow, Janet A. Walker The Woman's Hand: Gender and Theory in Japanese Women's Writing 1996, p. 174. "Most likely, Akinari's principal source for "The Destiny That Spanned Two Lifetimes" was "Sanshu amagane no koto" (About the rain bell of Sanshu [Sanuki province]), from Kingyoku neji-bukusa (The golden gemmed twisted wrapper; 1704)."

Saint Hakushin from Inuyasha used this practice to sacrifice himself and protect the inhabitants around Mount Hakurei.

sokushinbutsu

Origin

Japan

In popular culture

See also

References

Further reading