son preference in China
{{short description|Gender preference issue in China}}
Son preference in China is a gender preference issue underpinned by the belief that boys have more value than girls.{{Cite web |last=Indo Canadian Women's Association |date=2018 |title=Preference for a Male Child |url=http://icwaedmonton.org/index.php/violence-against-women/son-preferencehttps://icwaedmonton.org/preference-for-a-male-child/}} In China, the bias towards male over female offspring is demonstrated by the sex ratio at birth (SRB).{{Cite book|title=The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World|last=Seager|first=Joni|publisher=New York: Penguin Group|year=2009|location=New York|pages=42}}
Key factors driving the son preference include the economic impact on families, since men are expected to care for their parents in old age, while women are not.{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Shuzhuo|last2=Feldman|first2=Marcus W.|last3=Jin|first3=Xiaoyi|date=2004|title=Children, Marriage Form, and Family Support for the Elderly in Contemporary Rural China|journal=Research on Aging|language=en|volume=26|issue=3|pages=352–384|doi=10.1177/0164027503262477|s2cid=145583711|issn=0164-0275}} Further, Chinese agrarian society influences sex preference, as agriculture is often perceived as men's work in China.{{Cite web|url=https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/ch/4702-China-s-gender-crisis|title=中国的性别危机|website=www.chinadialogue.net|date=22 December 2011|language=en|access-date=2018-11-08}}
These issues were dramatically compounded by the implementation of the Chinese Communist Party's one-child rule in 1979.
== History ==
The origin of the son preference can be related to the beginning of Chinese patriarchal society.{{Cite web|url=https://jezebel.com/5303008/in-chinese-matriarchal-society-women-do-all-the-work|title=In Chinese "Matriarchal" Society, Women Do All The Work|last=Jezebel|first=Anna|date=26 June 2009 }} Agriculture is also a key factor in the historical preference for sons.{{Cite web|url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/114948/2/b14144530.pdf|title=Agricultural: a key to understand of Chinese society past and present|last=Wittogel|first=K}} For thousands of years in China, most people preferred sons to daughters because of their greater earning potential, especially in agrarian communities where strength-based tasks such as hunting, animal husbandry, and plowing are major sources of income.{{Cite news|last=Branigan|first=Tanin|date=2011-11-02|title=China's great gender crisis|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/02/chinas-great-gender-crisis|journal=Support the Guardian}}
File:China population sex by age on Nov, 1st, 2020.png for example, shows a similar though less pronounced tendency.]]
In traditional Chinese religious practice, males are preferred because they have the ability to continue the family line. Further, women are not traditionally responsible for their parents when they marry, while men are expected to care for parents in their old age.{{Cite journal|title=Sex selection|journal=Frontiers of Economics in China|volume=6|issue=4|pages=507–534|doi=10.1007/s11459-011-0145-1|year = 2011|last1 = Wen|first1 = Guanzhong James|s2cid=56038914}} The ideas of male superiority and female inferiority have existed in the patriarchal society for considerable time. With the development of feudal ethics, this viewpoint gradually developed and became culturally entrenched.
Prior to 1949, certain aspects of taijiao (fetal education) were believed to help ensure a fetus would be male, and pregnant women might visit also a fortune teller in an effort to determine fetal sex.{{Rp|page=214}}
In the People's Republic of China, local government bureaus and work units composed cultural works such as songs and dramas in an effort to overturn traditional cultural practices deemed inconsistent with modernization, namely the traditional son preference and trends of marrying earlier and having larger families.{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Sarah Mellors |url= |title=Reproductive realities in modern China : birth control and abortion, 1911-2021 |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-02733-5 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |oclc=1366057905}}{{Rp|page=121}} Organized group conversations and cultural activities were also used to challenge these traditional preferences and achieved some success.{{Rp|page=141}}
The traditional son preference in China has contributed to sex-selective abortions following the development of ultrasound machines in the 1980s and China's One-Child policy.{{Rp|page=214}} In 1986, the National Commission for Family Planning and the Ministry of Health prohibited prenatal sex determination except when diagnosing hereditary diseases.{{Rp|page=191}}Individuals or clinics that violate the prohibition are subject to fines.{{Rp|page=191}} This prohibition was repeatedly affirmed in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s.{{Rp|page=191}} Since the 1990s, government efforts to eliminate the traditional son preference and to promote son/daughter equality in family planning have increased.{{Cite book |last=Santos |first=Gonçalo |title=Chinese Village Life Today: Building Families in an Age of Transition |date=2021 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-74738-5 |location=Seattle |pages=}}{{Rp|page=6}} They further accelerated after the United Nations-sponsored Caring for Girls national campaign in 2003.{{Rp|page=7}}
Reasons
= Agrarian society =
Prior to globalization, during the Song, Ming and Qing dynasties, China was an agrarian society.{{Cite journal|last=James|first=Wen, Guanzhong|date=2011|title=Why Was China Trapped in an Agrarian Society? An Economic Geographical Approach to the Needham Puzzle [post-print]|url=https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/facpub/72/|journal=Trinity College Digital Repository|series=Trinity College Faculty Scholarship. Trinity College Digital Repository |language=en}} The majority of work in agriculture was deemed to utilize males’ strength. Although the expansionary of urbanisation has increased in recent decades throughout China, agriculture still plays a role in gender bias.{{Cite news|last=Simpson|first=P|date=2012|title=China's urban population exceeds rural for first time ever|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9020486/Chinas-urban-population-exceeds-rural-for-first-time-ever.html|journal=The Telegraph}} These cultural norms are deeply entrenched. Despite rapid development to the Chinese economy, many farmers who move from rural areas to cities still prefer sons; in Chinese social culture, sons are expected to take more responsibility to take on households.{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Wendy|date=2005|title=Son preference and educational opportunities of children in China— "I wish you were a boy!"|journal=Gender Issues|volume=22|issue=2|pages=3–30|doi=10.1007/s12147-005-0012-4|s2cid=144531015|issn=1098-092X}}
= Financial security =
Financial security is another factor that affects sex preference in China. Traditionally, once a girl is married, she becomes part of her husband's family, which means she is no longer responsible for her parents' care as they age. Thus, their parents worry about who will take care of them if their daughter were to get married.{{Cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=Maureen J.|last2=Larsen|first2=Ulla|last3=Xu|first3=Xiping|date=1998|title=Son Preference in Anhui Province, China|journal=International Family Planning Perspectives|volume=24|issue=2|pages=72–77|doi=10.2307/2991929|jstor=2991929}} In general, those that follow the traditional Chinese society believe that sons can take responsibility for their family, instead of girls.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq5STLb0fO4C&q=Family+line+in+China&pg=PR9|title=Village and Family in Contemporary China|last1=Parish|first1=William L.|last2=Whyte|first2=Martin King|date=1980-08-15|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226645919|language=en}}
In other words, traditionally, the blood of the family has been inherited by the male side. After the woman married, she joined her husband's family and took care of her in-laws rather than her own parents. There has long been the idea "to raise children to fight against aging" to ensure that one is cared for in their old age.{{Cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Congmin |last2=She |first2=Po-Wen |date=December 2021 |title="Raise Children to Fight Against Aging": The Determinants of Elderly Wellbeing in Today's China |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/S0217590818420031 |journal=The Singapore Economic Review |language=en |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=1613–1645 |doi=10.1142/S0217590818420031 |issn=0217-5908|url-access=subscription }} Therefore, raising a daughter becomes a waste of one's efforts. Some Chinese Sociologists explain that from the perspective of society, it is not rational to be patriarchal, but for individuals, this is still a wise choice.
As the Chinese population continued to grow, the government became concerned. Therefore, the CCP advanced the 'one child policy' in order to control the large population in 1979.{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Jiali|last2=Cooney|first2=Rosemary Santana|date=1993|title=Son preference and the one child policy in China: 1979?1988|journal=Population Research and Policy Review|language=en|volume=12|issue=3|pages=277–296|doi=10.1007/bf01074389|s2cid=153780904|issn=0167-5923}} New developments in ultrasound technology enabled Chinese parents to know their child's sex before birth, leading some to seek out sex-selective abortion to make sure they have boys. With only one child allowed per family, many viewed it as more important than ever to make sure that they had a son to care for them in their old age.{{Cite journal|last=Isabelle|first=Attané|title=The Demographic Masculinization of China: Hoping for a Son|url=https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/csp/article/download/25844/19090|journal=Canadian Studies in Population}}
= Traditional Chinese folk religion =
File:Confucius 02.png, founder of Confucianism]]
In rural China, traditional Chinese folk religion plays a role in son preference. Such folk religion may overlap with an individual's belief in Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, or other traditional Chinese religions.{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/religion-traditional.htm|title=Traditional Chinese Religion|last=Pike|first=John|website=www.globalsecurity.org|access-date=2018-10-18}} The majority of ancient Chinese were adherents of Confucianism, which values patriarchy. In general, the preference of a son is strongly reinforced in countries which follow Confucianism.{{Cite journal|last1=Arnold|first1=Fred|last2=Zhaoxiang|first2=Liu|date=1986|title=Sex Preference, Fertility, and Family Planning in China|journal=Population and Development Review|volume=12|issue=2|pages=221–246|doi=10.2307/1973109|jstor=1973109}}
Confucianism brings a heavy burden on Chinese women. In Chinese traditional Confucian families, the husband and other family members have more status than wives. A Chinese wife's responsibility is to look after and serve the household, including doing all the housework.{{Cite journal |title=The Confucian Ethic of Female Subordination and Depression Among Young People in Rural China|last1=Zhang|first1= Jie|last2= Liu|first2= Eric Y.|journal=Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion|location= Berkeley|volume=8|date=2012 |id={{ProQuest|1346906003}}}} Ancestor worship is underlined by Chinese folk religion as well.{{Cite journal|title=Village context, women's status, and son preference among rural Chinese women|journal=Rural Sociology|volume=68|pages=88|id={{ProQuest|199339943}}}} Chinese ancestor worship emphasizes filial piety. One of the filial method is to continue the family line in China. Passing on the genealogy is one of the main methods to continue the family. However, in old Chinese beliefs, a family’s genealogy will be interrupted if they do not have sons.{{Cite news|url=https://china-journal.org/2016/03/14/filial-piety-in-chinese-culture/|title=Filial Piety (孝) in Chinese Culture|date=2016-03-14|work=The Greater China Journal|access-date=2018-10-18|language=en-US}} Moreover, the inability to bear a son can become a potential factor for divorce for some couples.
Consequences
The sex ratio at birth (SRB) is defined as the ratio of the new born male infants to every 100 girls. It is demonstrated that China has consistently reported high SRBs in recent decades because of the effect of preferences for sons. This has raised concerns about a potential shortage of women in China in the next 20 years.{{Cite news|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110614141458.htm|title=How serious is son preference in China?|work=ScienceDaily|access-date=2018-10-18|language=en}}{{Cite journal|last1=Hesketh|first1=Therese|last2=Lu|first2=Li|last3=Xing|first3=Zhu Wei|date=2011-09-06|title=The consequences of son preference and sex-selective abortion in China and other Asian countries|journal=CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal|volume=183|issue=12|pages=1374–1377|doi=10.1503/cmaj.101368|issn=0820-3946|pmc=3168620|pmid=21402684}}
The overrepresentation of males among the population has been linked with an increase in violent crime.{{Cite book|title=The sex ratio as a predictor of cross-national variation in violent crime|last=Barber|first=N|publisher=Cross-Cultural Res|year=2000}} Some researchers posit that this is in part because some men will necessarily fail to meet traditional expectations, such as marrying and having children, if there are not as many women as men in the population.{{Cite journal|last=Hudson|first=V|title=A surplus of men, a deficit of peace|journal=Int Secur|volume=26|issue=5|pages=38}} Supporters of this explanation have pointed to data showing that across cultures, the majority of crime is committed by low-status and unmarried males.{{Cite journal|last=Messner|first=SF|date=1991|title=The sex ratio, family disruption and rates of violent crime: the paradox of demographic structure|journal=Soc Forces|volume=69|issue=3|pages=693–713|doi=10.2307/2579470|jstor=2579470}} They further theorize that men may turn to anti-social organizations, threatening social stability and security, since they do not fit into the current social order.{{Cite journal|last=Hudson|first=V|date=2002|title=A surplus of men, a deficit of peace|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/11430/1/surplus_men_IS_article.pdf|journal=Int Secur|volume=26|pages=5–38|doi=10.1162/016228802753696753|s2cid=57568336}}
Excess male population has also been correlated with an increase in the popularity of pornography and commercial sex. The sex industry has been experiencing high rates of expansion in current decades.{{Cite journal|last1=Dandona|first1=R|last2=Dandona|first2=L|last3=Kumar|first3=GA|last4=Gutierrez|first4=JP|last5=McPherson|first5=S|last6=Samuels|first6=F|last7=Bertozzi|first7=SM|date=2016|title=Demography and sex work characteristics of female sex workers in India|journal=ASCI FPP Study Team|volume=6|pages=5|pmid=16615869|doi=10.1186/1472-698X-6-5|pmc=1468426|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Tucker|first1=JD|last2=Henderson|first2=GE|last3=Wang|first3=TF|last4=Huang|first4=YY|last5=Parish|first5=W|last6=Pan|first6=SM|last7=Chen|first7=XS|last8=Cohen|first8=MS|date=2005|title=Surplus men, sex work, and the spread of HIV in China.|journal=AIDS|volume=19|issue=6|pages=539–47|doi=10.1097/01.aids.0000163929.84154.87|pmid=15802971|s2cid=32792732|doi-access=free}} However, the connection between an increasing demand for sex workers and the female deficit cannot be proved. According to some research, the main reason for the increasing number of sex workers in China may be related to domestic socioeconomic inequality.
Some positive changes may occur because of the high sex ratio of males in China. A woman's status may develop gradually due to the sex preference and the rise in fertility needs. The mortality rate of girls will likely decrease as gender discrimination decreases.{{Cite journal|last=Goodkind|first=D|date=1996|title=On substituting sex ratio strategies in east Asia: Does prenatal sex selection reduce postnatal discrimination?|journal=Popul Dev Rev|volume=22 |issue=111|pages=25|doi=10.2307/2137689|jstor=2137689}} Some articles argue that sex imbalance is a way to control China's large population.{{Cite journal|last=Arnold|first=F|date=1987|title=The effect of sex preference on fertility and family planning: empirical evidence.|journal=Popul Bull UN|volume=|issue=23–24|pages=55|pmid=12315521}} Ironically, a shortage of women may lead to increased female status, causing the son preference to decrease.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/02/chinas-great-gender-crisis|title=China's great gender crisis|last=Branigan|first=Tania|date=2011-11-02|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-10-18}}
The issue of women’s rights and patriarchal issues has also become a major concern of the representatives of the Chinese National Committees in 2017. In recent years, the Chinese government has attached great importance to the rights and interests of women, especially with the series of targeted measures taken in recent years to significantly improve the status of women.{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/gongyi/2017-03/09/c_129505172.htm|title=53.9%受访者称家乡重男轻女现象减轻 农村仍较重-新华网|website=www.xinhuanet.com|access-date=2018-11-08}} Within China, a strong preference for sons and the practice of sex-selective abortion have resulted in a staggering imbalance, with an excess of 32 million males under the age of 20. This son preference has also triggered postnatal discrimination against girls, manifesting in a range of harmful practices that span from infanticide to the neglect of essential healthcare and nutrition, frequently culminating in untimely mortality.{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Wendy |date=2005-06-01 |title=Son preference and educational opportunities of children in China— "I wish you were a boy!" |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-005-0012-4 |journal=Gender Issues |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=3–30 |doi=10.1007/s12147-005-0012-4 |s2cid=144531015 |issn=1936-4717|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |title=How serious is son preference in China? |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110614141458.htm |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}
Chinese one-child policy
File:Sex ratio at birth in mainland China.png.]]
File:PRC family planning don't abandon girls.jpg, Ziyang, Sichuan, which reads "It is forbidden to discriminate against, abuse or abandon baby girls"]]
The Chinese one-child policy (instituted from 1979 to 2016) contributed to sex imbalance in China as well. The policy penalized families who had more than one child. The original intention of this policy was to control the growth rate of China's large population. Although this policy was introduced as long term and aimed to reduce the number of family members, this measure was not uniformly implemented.
In the early 1980s, the sex ratio of births was 108 (the ratio of male to female was 108:100), slightly higher than the natural level. By 2000, this number had risen to 120, with some provinces such as Anhui, Jiangxi, and Shaanxi reaching 130. Compared to the natural level, this meant 35 million fewer girls were born than would be biologically expected. Although countries like India face similar imbalances, China's gap is the largest, mostly due to the one child policy.
The Chinese government tried to counteract these developments by compensating families who only had a girl and, in some rural areas, allowing them to have a second child if the first was a girl. This however led to further reinforcement of the idea that boys were more valuable.{{Cite web|title=How serious is son preference in China?|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-06/lu-hsi061411.php|access-date=2018-11-08|website=EurekAlert!|language=en}}
Reactions
Son preference in China has also attracted social or international attention, leading the United Nations to propose improvements in gender equality in China. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women produced a report to assess the issue of male overpopulation in China and propose solutions.{{Cite news|url=https://news.un.org/zh/audio/2006/09/291452|title=联合国提出中国两性平等方面的改进意见|date=2006-09-01|work=联合国新闻|access-date=2018-11-08|language=zh-hans}}
The Committee recommended that China conduct compulsory gender equality education for family planning officials and recommended that China address the root causes of patriarchal attitudes in rural areas. To solve the negative consequences of the one-child policy, the specific recommendations of this committee is to expand public benefit in rural areas, especially for rural women, by expanding the insurance system and pensions in China.{{Cite news|url=https://news.un.org/zh/audio/2006/09/291452|title=联合国提出中国两性平等方面的改进意见|date=2006-09-01|work=联合国新闻|access-date=2018-11-08|language=zh-hans}}
See also
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Sexuality and gender in China}}
{{Family planning policies of China}}