sutra

File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg

The Sanskrit word Sūtra (Sanskrit: सूत्र, Pali: sutta, Ardha Magadhi: sūya) means "string, thread".M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 249 The root of the word is siv, "that which sews and holds things together".{{cite book |last=MacGregor |first=Geddes |author-link=Geddes MacGregor |title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofreli00macg |year=1989 |publisher=Paragon House |location=New York |isbn=1-55778-019-6 |edition=1st}} The word is related to sūci (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109073543/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU |date=2017-01-09 }} Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany and sūnā (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".

In the context of literature, sūtra means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.

A sūtra is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words". A collection of sūtras becomes a text, and this is also called sūtra (often capitalized in Western literature).

A sūtra is different from other components such as Shlokas, Anuvyakhayas and Vyakhyas found in ancient Indian literature. A sūtra is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,{{cite book|author=Irving L. Finkel |title=Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B20NAQAAMAAJ |year=2007|publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-1153-7 |page=203 }} while a Shloka is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter,{{cite book|author= Kale Pramod |title=The Theatric Universe: (a Study of the Natyasastra) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRdNBKIHnjkC |year=1974|publisher=Popular|isbn=978-81-7154-118-8 |page=8 }}{{cite book|author=Lewis Rowell |title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73034-9 |page=135 }} an Anuvyakhaya is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a Vyakhya is a comment by the reviewer.Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/110/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 110–111[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=vyakhya&trans=Translate व्याख्या] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000902/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=vyakhya&trans=Translate |date=2017-02-02 }}, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany

Sutras first appear in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layer of Vedic literature.M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 251–253 They grow in number in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras. These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference.

A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand without associated scholarly Bhasya or deciphering commentary that fills in the "weft".Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1-5191-1778-6}}, page 26{{cite journal|author1=Tubb, Gary A. |author2=Emery B. Boose |title=Scholastic Sanskrit, A Manual for Students |doi=10.1007/s10783-008-9085-y |volume=51 |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |pages=45–46|s2cid=162343189 }}

The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era that contain extensive sutras are part of the Vedas, dated from the late 2nd millennium BCE through to the mid 1st millennium BCE.Max Müller (1859), [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/314/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], London: Williams and Norgate, pages 314–319 The Aitareya Aranyaka, for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of sutras. Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called Gatha, Narashansi, Itihasa, and Akhyana (songs, legends, epics, and stories).Max Müller (1859), [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/40/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], London: Williams and Norgate, pages 40–45, 71–77

In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period".Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-564441-8}}, page 206 This period followed the more ancient Chhandas period, Mantra period and Brahmana period.Max Müller (1859), [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/70/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], London: Williams and Norgate, page 70

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(The ancient) Indian pupil learnt these sutras of grammar, philosophy or theology by the same mechanical method which fixes in our (modern era) minds the alphabet and the multiplication table.

|author=Max Müller|source=History of Ancient Sanskrit LiteratureMax Müller (1859), [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/74/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], London: Williams and Norgate, page 74|width=72%}}

{{further information|Hindu texts}}

{{Hinduism}}

Some of the earliest surviving specimens of sutras of Hinduism are found in the Anupada Sutras and Nidana Sutras.Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 108 The former distills the epistemic debate whether Sruti or Smriti or neither must be considered the more reliable source of knowledge,Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/100/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 101–108 while the latter distills the rules of musical meters for Samaveda chants and songs.Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/146/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 147

A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of the Vedas. These are six subjects that said in the Vedas to be necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their own sutras were "pronunciation (Shiksha), meter (Chandas), grammar (Vyakarana), explanation of words (Nirukta), time keeping through astronomy (Jyotisha), and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa). The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in the Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge at yajnas (fire rituals).Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108–113 The sutras corresponding to these are embedded inside the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery", and "On Euphonic Laws".Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 113–115

The fourth and often the last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in the Taittiriya Upanishad.

The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the Kalpa Sutras, Shulba Sutras, Srauta Sutras, Dharma Sutras, Grhya Sutras, and Smarta traditions .Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108–145 Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics, and grammar.

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|quote=Example of sutras from Vedanta Sutra

अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा ॥१.१.१॥

जन्माद्यस्य यतः ॥ १.१.२॥

शास्त्रयोनित्वात् ॥ १.१.३॥

तत्तुसमन्वयात् ॥ १.१.४॥

ईक्षतेर्नाशब्दम् ॥ १.१.५॥

|source =— Brahma Sutra 1.1.1–1.1.5{{cite book | last = Radhakrishna | first = Sarvepalli | author-link = Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | title = Brahma Sutra, The Philosophy of Spiritual Life | url = https://archive.org/stream/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life/Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life#page/n225/mode/2up | year = 1960 | pages = 227–232}}
George Adams (1993), The Structure and Meaning of Bādarāyaṇa's Brahma Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0931-4}}, page 38Original Sanskrit: [https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#page/n0/mode/2up Brahma sutra Bhasya] Adi Shankara, [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/brahma_suutra.pdf Archive 2]}}

Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of Hindu philosophy include

• Brahma Sutras (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1281-7}}, page 35 with footnote 30 The text contains 555 sutras in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the Upanishads.James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 124 It is one of the foundational texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy.
• Yoga Sutras – contains 196 sutras on Yoga including the eight limbs and meditation. The Yoga Sutras were compiled around 400 CE by Patanjali, taking materials about yoga from older traditions.{{Citation | last =Wujastyk| first =Dominik | year =2011 | title =The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher =Princeton University Press|page=33}} The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|page=xvi}}
• Samkhya Sutra – is a collection of major Sanskrit texts of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on dualism of Kapila.[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Samkhya Pravachana Sutra] NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i It consists of six books with 526 sutras.

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|quote =

Sutra, without commentary:

Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This different from body, because of heterogeneousness. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it is expressed by means of the sixth case. (Sutra 3, Book 6)

With Vijnanabhiksu's commentary bhasya filled in:

Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not, since we are aware of "I think", because there is no evidence to defeat this. Therefore all that is to be done is to discriminate it from things in general. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This soul is different from the body because of heterogeneousness or complete difference between the two. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it, the Soul, is expressed by means of the sixth case, for the learned express it by the possessive case in such examples as 'this is my body', 'this my understanding'; for the possessive case would be unaccountable if there were absolute non-difference, between the body or the like, and the Soul to which it is thus attributed as a possession. (Sutra 3, Book 6)

|author = – Kapila in Samkhya Sutra

|source = Translated by James Robert BallantyneKapila (James Robert Ballantyne, Translator, 1865), {{Google books|mOY9AAAAcAAJ|The Sāmkhya aphorisms of Kapila}}, pages 156–157Max Muller et al. (1999 Reprint), Studies in Buddhism, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|81-206-1226-4}}, page 10 with footnote

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• Vaisheshika Sutra – the foundational text of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to between the 4th century BCE and 1st century BCE, authored by Kanada. With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic naturalism, epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of Dharma; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, pages 334–335Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 98–107
• Nyaya Sutras – an ancient text of Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between the 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, page 129B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv. It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals. The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1264-2}}SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0748-8}} These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book. The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge. Book two is about pramana (epistemology), book three is about prameya or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.

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Reality is truth (prāma, foundation of correct knowledge), and what is true is so, irrespective of whether we know it is, or are aware of that truth.

|author = – Akṣapada Gautama in Nyaya Sutra

|source = Translated by Jeaneane D FowlerJeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, page 130

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• Mimamsa Sutras – the foundational text of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini. It emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, i.e., rituals and religious works, as means to salvation.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 67–86 The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the Nyaya school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology. An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 sutras.
• Dharma-sutras – of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha
• Artha-sutras – the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics, and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0063-2}}, pages 586–587 The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the Arthashastra is itself composed in many parts, in sutra style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of Artha-knowledge from previous scholars.Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-670-08527-9}}, pages 16–17, 61, 64, 75
• Kama Sutra – an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexual and emotional fulfillment in life
• Moksha-sutras{{explain|date=November 2019}}
• Shiva Sutras – fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of Sanskrit
• Narada Bhakti Sutra – a venerated Hindu sutra, reportedly spoken by the famous sage Narada
• Shandilya Bhakti Sutra – collection of one hundred bhakti sutras spoken by the Vedic sage Brahmarshi Shandilya. These sutras are also called as Shandilya Sutras.{{Cite book |last=Sri Shandilya Muni |url=https://archive.org/details/ShandilyaBhaktiSutra |title=Shandilya Bhakti Sutra}}

{{further information|Buddhist texts|List of suttas}}

{{Buddhism}}

In Buddhism, a sutta or sutra constitutes a segment of the canonical literature. These early Buddhist sutras, unlike Hindu texts, are not aphoristic; rather, they tend to be quite lengthy. The Buddhist term sutta or sutra likely derives from Sanskrit sūkta (su + ukta), meaning "well spoken," reflecting the belief that "all that was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well-spoken".K. R. Norman (1997), A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994. (Buddhist Forum, Vol. v.)London: School of Oriental and African Studies,p. 104 They embody the essence of sermons conveying "well-spoken" wisdom, akin to the Jain sutras.

In Chinese, these are known as 經 (pinyin: jīng). These teachings are organized as part of the Tripiṭaka, specifically referred to as the Sutta Pitaka. Numerous significant or influential Mahayana texts, such as the Platform Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, are termed sutras despite being attributed to much later authors.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

In Theravada Buddhism, suttas constitute the second "basket" (pitaka) of the Pāli Canon. Rewata Dhamma and Bhikkhu Bodhi describe the Sutta Pitaka as:

{{quote|The Sutta Pitaka, the second collection, brings together the Buddha's discourses spoken by him on various occasions during his active ministry of forty-five years.{{cite book|last1=Dhamma|first1=U Rewata|author-link1=Rewata Dhamma|last2=Bodhi|first2=Bhikkhu|author-link2=Bhikkhu Bodhi|title=A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma|year=2000|pages=1–2|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|isbn=1-928706-02-9}}}}

{{furtherinformation|Jain texts}}

{{Jainism}}

In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized.{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting |author-link=Mary Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=84–85}}

The Kalpa Sūtra is, for example, a Jain text that includes monastic rules,{{cite book|author=John Cort |title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC |year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973957-8 |pages=138–139 }} as well as biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras.{{cite book | last =Jacobi | first =Hermann |editor=Max Müller | title =Kalpa Sutra, Jain Sutras Part I | publisher =Oxford University Press | year =1884 }} Many sutras discuss all aspects of ascetic and lay life in Jainism. Various ancient sutras particularly from the early 1st millennium CE, for example, recommend devotional bhakti as an essential Jain practice.{{cite book|author= M. Whitney Kelting| author-link=Mary Whitney Kelting | title= Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3 |pages=111–112 }}

The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as the Acaranga Sutra (Agamas), exist in sutra format,{{cite book|author=Padmanabh S. Jaini |title=Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GRA-uoUFz3MC |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06820-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GRA-uoUFz3MC/page/n62 32] }} as is the Tattvartha Sutra, a Sanskrit text accepted by all four Jainism sects as the most authoritative philosophical text that completely summarizes the foundations of Jainism.{{cite book|author=K. V. Mardia|title=The Scientific Foundations of Jainism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_VCbRgKKNYC|year=1990|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0658-0|page=103|quote= Quote: Thus, there is a vast literature available but it seems that Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati can be regarded as the main philosophical text of the religion and is recognized as authoritative by all Jains."}}{{cite book |last=Jaini|first=Padmanabh S. |title=The Jaina path of purification |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C&pg=PA113 |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=81-208-1578-5|page=82}}

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• Ananda Sutram
• Chinese Buddhist canon
• List of suttas
• Shastra
• Sutra copying
• Sutram
• Tibetan Buddhist canon

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{{reflist|30em}}

• {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=The sūtras|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell }}
• Monier-Williams, Monier. (1899) A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. p. 1241
• {{cite book |title = Scholastic Sanskrit: A Handbook for Students |year = 2007 |location = New York |publisher = Columbia University Press |last1 = Tubb |first1 = Gary A. |last2 = Boose |first2 = Emery R. |isbn = 978-0-9753734-7-7}}

• [https://suttacentral.net/ SuttaCentral] Public domain translations in multiple languages of suttas from the Pali Tipitaka and other collections.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20180324130422/http://www.fodian.net/world/ Buddhist Scriptures in Multiple Languages]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013103603/http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/Buddhism.htm#Sutras More Mahayana Sutras]
• [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm The Hindu Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Vedanta] Sacred-texts.com
• [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/sutra.pdf A Modern sutra]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511222056/http://www.uwest.edu/sanskritcanon/index.html Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon]
• [http://www.buddhistinformation.com/ida_b_wells_memorial_sutra_library/ Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library] (Pali Suttas)
• [http://thecompassionnetwork.org/tripitaka-lists/ Chinese and English Buddhist Sutras]
• [https://politysutra.com/ Polity Sutra]
• [https://yogasutra195.com/ Yoga Sutra of Patanjali Translations in Multiple Languages|Yoga Sutra Chanting by Vimal Sharma]

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