teaching machine

Image:Skinner teaching machine 01.jpg]]

Teaching machines were originally mechanical devices that presented educational materials and taught students. They were first invented by Sidney L. Pressey in the mid-1920s.Pressey's priority is supported by Ernest Hilgard, "Programmed learning", in: {{cite book |last1=Hilgard |first1=Ernest R. |authorlink1=Ernest Hilgard |last2=Bower |first2=Gordon H. |authorlink2=Gordon H. Bower |date=1966 |chapter=Learning and the technology of instruction |title=Theories of learning |edition=3rd |series=Century psychology series |location=New York |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |pages=541–584 ([https://archive.org/details/theoriesoflearni00hilg/page/554 554–561]) |oclc=180603 |url=https://archive.org/details/theoriesoflearni00hilg |url-access=registration}} His machine originally administered multiple-choice questions. The machine could be set so it moved on only when the student got the right answer. Tests showed that learning had taken place.{{cite journal |last=Pressey |first=Sidney L. |authorlink=Sidney L. Pressey |date=20 March 1926 |title=A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores—and teaches |journal=School & Society |volume=23 |issue=586 |pages=373–376 |issn=0036-6455}} Reprinted in {{harvnb|Lumsdaine|Glaser|1960|pp=35–41}}.{{cite journal |last=Pressey |first=Sidney L. |authorlink=Sidney L. Pressey |date=7 May 1927 |title=A machine for automatic teaching of drill material |journal=School & Society |volume=25 |issue=645 |pages=549–552 |issn=0036-6455}} Reprinted in {{harvnb|Lumsdaine|Glaser|1960|pp=42–46}}.{{cite journal |last=Pressey |first=Sidney L. |authorlink=Sidney L. Pressey |date=19 November 1932 |title=A third and fourth contribution toward the coming 'industrial revolution' in education |journal=School & Society |volume=36 |issue=934 |pages=668–672 |issn=0036-6455}} Reprinted in {{harvnb|Lumsdaine|Glaser|1960|pp=47–51}}.{{cite journal |last=Pressey |first=Sidney L. |date=April 1950 |title=Development and appraisal of devices providing immediate automatic scoring of objective tests and concomitant self-instruction |journal=The Journal of Psychology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=417–447 |doi=10.1080/00223980.1950.9916043}} This was an example of how knowledge of results causes learning. Much later, Norman Crowder developed the Pressey idea further.{{cite book |last=Crowder |first=Norman A. |date=1959 |chapter=Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming |editor-last=Galanter |editor-first=Eugene |editor-link=Eugene Galanter |title=Automatic teaching: the state of the art |location=New York |publisher=Wiley |pages=[https://archive.org/details/automaticteachin0000gala/page/109 109–116] |oclc=705973 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/automaticteachin0000gala/page/109 |chapter-url-access=registration}}{{cite book |last=Crowder |first=Norman A. |date=1960 |chapter=Automatic tutoring by intrinsic programming |editor1-last=Lumsdaine |editor1-first=Arthur A. |editor2-last=Glaser |editor2-first=Robert |title=Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book |volume=1 |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=Dept. of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association of the United States |pages=[https://archive.org/details/teachingmachines0000unse/page/286 286–298] |oclc=12729062 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/teachingmachines0000unse/page/286 |chapter-url-access=registration}}

B. F. Skinner was responsible for a different type of machine which used his ideas on how learning should be directed with positive reinforcement.{{cite book |last=Skinner |first=B. F. |authorlink=B. F. Skinner |date=1968 |title=The technology of teaching |series=The Century psychology series |location=New York |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |oclc=180158 |url=https://archive.org/details/technologyofteac00skin |url-access=registration}} Includes reprints of all his papers on programmed learning. Skinner advocated the use of teaching machines for a broad range of students (e.g., preschool aged to adult) and instructional purposes (e.g., reading and music). The instructional potential of the teaching machine stemmed from several factors: it provided automatic, immediate and regular reinforcement without the use of aversive control; the material presented was coherent, yet varied and novel; the pace of learning could be adjusted to suit the individual. As a result, students were interested, attentive, and learned efficiently by producing the desired behavior, "learning by doing".{{cite journal |last=Skinner |first=B. F. |authorlink=B. F. Skinner |date=November 1961 |title=Teaching machines |journal=Scientific American |volume=205 |issue=5 |pages=91–102 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1161-90 |pmid=13913636 |jstor=24937132}}{{cite book |last1=Holland |first1=James Gordon |last2=Skinner |first2=B. F. |authorlink2=B. F. Skinner |date=1961 |title=The analysis of behavior: a program for self-instruction |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=387 |oclc=190451}}

There is extensive experience that both methods worked well, and so did programmed learning in other forms, such as books.{{cite book |editor-last=Glaser |editor-first=Robert |date=1965 |title=Teaching machines and programmed learning II: data and directions |volume=2 |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=Dept. of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association of the United States |oclc=220279103 |url=https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED028638}}

The ideas of teaching machines and programmed learning provided the basis for later ideas such as open learning and computer-assisted instruction.

Illustrations of early teaching machines can be found in the 1960 sourcebook, Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning.{{cite book |editor1-last=Lumsdaine |editor1-first=Arthur A. |editor2-last=Glaser |editor2-first=Robert |date=1960 |title=Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book |volume=1 |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=Dept. of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association of the United States |oclc=12729062 |url=https://archive.org/details/teachingmachines0000unse |url-access=registration}} An "Autotutor" was demonstrated at the 1964 World's Fair.{{Cite web|title=Auto-Tutor (1964)|url=https://paleofuture.com/blog/2008/4/23/auto-tutor-1964.html|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Paleofuture|language=en-US}}