universalism

In philosophy, universality is the idea that universal facts exist and can be discovered, as opposed to relativism, which asserts that all facts are relative to one's perspective.{{cite web |title=Relativism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=13 July 2020|quote=...relativism...denies the universality of certain truth claims...}}

{{Main|Moral universalism|Moral particularism}}

Moral universalism (also called moral objectivism or universal morality) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics applies universally.{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/u.htm|title=Philosophical Dictionary: "universalizability"|website=www.philosophypages.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820235357/http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/u.htm|archive-date=2007-08-20|quote=universalizability: The applicability of a moral rule to all similarly situated individuals.}} That system is inclusive of all individuals,{{cite web |url=http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/u.htm#unvby |title=A Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names |work=Philosophy Pages |first=Garth|last=Kemerling |date=November 12, 2011}} According to [http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/kant.htm Immanuel Kant] and [http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/h.htm#hare Richard Mervyn Hare]...moral imperatives must be regarded as equally binding on everyone. regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other distinguishing feature.{{cite encyclopedia |quote=Let us say that moral objectivism maintains that moral judgments are ordinarily true or false in an absolute or universal sense, that some of them are true, and that people sometimes are justified in accepting true moral judgments (and rejecting false ones) on the basis of evidence available to any reasonable and well-informed person. |first=Chris|last=Gowans |title=Moral Relativism |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2012 |editor=Edward N. Zalta |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/moral-relativism/ |date=Dec 9, 2008}} Moral universalism is opposed to moral nihilism and moral relativism. However, not all forms of moral universalism are absolutist, nor do they necessarily value monism. Many forms of universalism, such as utilitarianism, are non-absolutist. Other forms such as those theorized by Isaiah Berlin, may value pluralist ideals.

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{{Main|Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity|Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion|Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)}}

In the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith, a single God has sent all the historic founders of the world religions in a process of progressive revelation. As a result, the major world religions are seen as divine in origin and are continuous in their purpose. In this view, there is unity among the founders of world religions, but each revelation brings a more advanced set of teachings in human history and none are syncretic.{{cite book |title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháʼí Faith |url=https://archive.org/details/paradiseparadigm00buck |url-access=limited |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1999 |page=[https://archive.org/details/paradiseparadigm00buck/page/n303 292] |last=Buck |first=Christopher}} In addition, the Baháʼí teachings acknowledge that in every country and every people God has always revealed the divine purpose via messengers and prophets, masters and sages since time immemorial.{{cite web |author= |access-date=August 4, 2022 |website=Bahaipedia |title=Manifestation of God |url=https://bahaipedia.org/Manifestation_of_God}}{{cite web |access-date=August 4, 2022 |website=Bahaiteachings.org |title=How Many Prophets? |url=https://bahaiteachings.org/how-many-prophets/ |last=Langness |first=David|date=30 May 2015 }}

Within this universal view, the unity of humanity is one of the central teachings of the Baháʼí Faith.{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Stockman |title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions |isbn=1-57731-121-3 |publisher=New World Library |year=2000 |editor-first=Joel |editor-last=Beversluis |chapter=The Baha'i Faith |page=[https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofworl00beve/page/7 7] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofworl00beve/page/7 }} The Baháʼí teachings state that since all humans have been created in the image of God, God does not make any distinction between people with regard to race, colour or religion.{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i (sic) Faith |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6}}{{rp|138}} Thus, because all humans have been created equal, they all require equal opportunities and treatment. Hence the Baháʼí view promotes the unity of humanity, and that people's vision should be world-embracing and that people should love the whole world rather than just their nation.{{rp|138}}

The teaching, however, does not equate unity with uniformity; instead the Baháʼí writings advocate the principle of unity in diversity where the variety in the human race is valued.{{rp|139}} Operating on a worldwide basis this cooperative view of the peoples and nations of the planet culminates in a vision of the practicality of the progression in world affairs towards, and the inevitability of, world peace.{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/266 |title=peace |pages=266–267 |last=Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |encyclopedia=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |year=2000 |edition=illustrated, reprint |publisher=Oneworld Publications |place=Oxford |isbn=1-85168-184-1 |via=Internet Archive |url-access=limited }}

The term Universalism has been applied to different aspects of Buddhist thought by different modern authors.

The idea of universal salvation is key to the Mahayana school of Buddhism.{{Cite web |title=The main branches of Buddhism (article) |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/beginners-guide-asian-culture/buddhist-art-culture/a/the-main-branches-of-buddhism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222172216/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/beginners-guide-asian-culture/buddhist-art-culture/a/the-main-branches-of-buddhism |archive-date=2021-02-22 |access-date=2021-08-24 |website=Khan Academy |language=en}} A common feature of Mahayana Buddhism is the idea that all living beings have Buddha nature and thus all beings can aspire to become bodhisattvas, beings who are on the path to Buddhahood. This capacity is seen as something that all beings in the universe have.Takahatake, Takamichi (2006). Young Man Shinran: A Reappraisal of Shinran’s Life, p. 36. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. This idea has been termed "bodhisattva universalism" by the Buddhist studies scholar Jan Nattier.C. V. Jones (2020). The Buddhist Self: On Tathāgatagarbha and Ātman. p. 204. University of Hawaii Press.

The idea of universal Buddha nature has been interpreted in various ways in Buddhism, from the idea that all living beings have Buddha nature and thus can become Buddhas to the idea that because all beings have Buddha nature, all beings will definitely become Buddhas.{{cite book | chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9002 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9002 | chapter=Buddha-Nature of Insentient Beings | title=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion | year=2014 | last1=Chen | first1=Shuman | pages=208–212 | isbn=978-1-4614-6085-5 }} Some forms of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism even extended the Buddha nature theory to plants and insentient phenomena. Some thinkers (such as Kukai) even promote the idea that the entire universe is the Buddha's body.Chung, Paul S (2008). Martin Luther and Buddhism: Aesthetics of Suffering, Second Edition, pp. 373-375. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

The Lotus Sutra, an influential Mahayana scripture, is often seen as promoting the universality of Buddhahood, the Buddha's teaching as well as the equality of all living beings.Reeves, Gene (2010). The Stories of the Lotus Sutra. Simon and Schuster.Steven Heine (2015). Dōgen and Sōtō Zen. p. 65. Oxford University Press. Mahayana Buddhism also promotes a universal compassion towards all sentient beings and sees all beings as equally deserving of compassion.Travagnin, Stefania (2016). Religion and Media in China: Insights and Case Studies from the Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong, p. 124. Taylor & Francis.Kristin Beise Kiblinger (2017). Buddhist Inclusivism: Attitudes Towards Religious Others, Routledge. The doctrine of the One Vehicle (which states that all Buddhist paths lead to Buddhahood) is also often seen as a universalist doctrine.

Adherents to Pure Land Buddhism point to Amitabha Buddha as a Universal Savior. According to the Pure Land Sutras (scriptures), before becoming a Buddha Amitabha vowed that he would save all beings and according to some Pure Land authors, all beings will be eventually saved through the work of Amida Buddha. As such, Pure Land Buddhism is often seen as an expression of a Buddhist universalism that compares to Christian universalism.Pan-chiu Lai, "Barth and Universal Salvation, A Mahayana Buddhist Perspective" in Martha L. Moore-Keish, Christian T. Collins Winn. Karl Barth and Comparative Theology. Fordham Univ Press, Aug 6, 2019. This comparison has also been commented on by Christian theologians like Karl Barth.

Chinese Buddhism developed a form of Buddhist universalism which saw Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism as different aspects of a single universal truth.F Harold Smith. The Buddhist Way of Life: Its Philosophy and History. Routledge, 2013.

In Western Buddhism, the term Universalism may also refer to an nonsectarian and eclectic form of Buddhism which emphasizes ecumenism among the different Buddhism schools.Emily Sigalow (2022). American JewBu: Jews, Buddhists, and Religious Change, p. 45. Princeton University Press. American clergyman Julius A. Goldwater was one Buddhist figure who promoted a modern kind of Buddhist Universalism. For Goldwater, Buddhism transcends local contexts and culture, and his practice grew increasingly eclectic over time. Goldwater established the nonsectarian Buddhist Brotherhood of America which focused on ecumenical and nonsectarian Buddhism while also drawing on Protestant vocabulary and ideas.Emily Sigalow (2022). American JewBu: Jews, Buddhists, and Religious Change, p. 46. Princeton University Press.

The desire to develop a more universalist and nonsectarian form of Buddhism was also shared by some modernist Japanese Buddhist authors, including the influential D.T. Suzuki.Duncan Ryuken Williams, Tomoe Moriya. Issei Buddhism in the Americas, pp. 85, 123. University of Illinois Press, 2010.

{{Main|Christian universalism}}

The fundamental idea of Christian universalism is universal reconciliation – that all humans will ultimately receive salvation and be reconciled to God. They will eventually enter God's kingdom in Heaven, through the grace and works of the Lord Jesus Christ.{{cite web |url=http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/chr-univ.html |title=What Is Christian Universalism? |publisher=Auburn.edu |access-date=2017-12-17 |archive-date=2017-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122135418/http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/chr-univ.html |url-status=dead }} Christian universalists hold that an everlasting hell does not exist (though most believe there is a temporary hell of some kind), and that unending torment was not what Jesus taught. They point to historical evidence showing that many early fathers of the church were universalistsSee Ramelli, The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis, and A Larger Hope. and attribute the origin of the idea of hell as eternal punishment to mistranslation. They also appeal to many texts of Scripture to argue that the concept of eternal hell is not biblically or historically supported either in Judaism or early Christianity.{{Cite web|url=https://christianuniversalist.org/resources/articles/salvation-conspiracy/|title=The Salvation Conspiracy: How Hell Became Eternal | Christian Universalist Association|date=19 March 2013}}

Universalists cite numerous biblical passages which reference the salvation of all beings (such as Jesus' words in John 12:31-32, and Paul's words in Romans 5:18-19).{{cite web|author=Gary Amirault |url=http://www.tentmaker.org/tracts/TheFateOfTheWicked.html |title=The Fate of the Wicked |publisher=Tentmaker.org |access-date=2017-12-17}} In addition, they argue that an eternal hell is both unjust and contrary to the nature and attributes of a loving God.{{Cite web|last=Guild|first=E.E.|title=Arguments in Favor of Universalism|url=https://www.tentmaker.org/books/InFavorCh20.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419182237/https://www.tentmaker.org/books/InFavorCh20.html|archive-date=2021-04-19|access-date=2021-08-24|website=www.tentmaker.org}}{{Cite web|title=Kingdom Bible Studies: J. Preston Eby, Kingdom of God; Saviour of The World|url=https://www.godfire.net/eby/saviour_of_the_world.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419181837/https://www.godfire.net/eby/saviour_of_the_world.html|archive-date=2021-04-19|access-date=2021-08-24|website=www.godfire.net}}{{Cite web|title=Hell Fire and Brimstone, The Lake of Fire, Second Death|url=https://www.godfire.net/Hellidx.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225145328/https://www.godfire.net/Hellidx.html|archive-date=2021-02-25|access-date=2021-08-24|website=www.godfire.net}}

The beliefs of Christian universalism are generally compatible with the essentials of Christianity, as they do not contradict any of the central affirmations summarized in the Nicene Creed.Gregory MacDonald, The Evangelical Universalist, 175-176. More specifically, universalists often emphasize the following teachings:

• God is the loving Parent of all people (see Love of God).
• Jesus Christ reveals the nature and character of God, and is the spiritual leader of humankind.
• Humankind is created with an immortal soul, which death can not end—or a mortal soul that shall be resurrected and preserved by God. A soul which God will not wholly destroy.{{Cite web|title=The Bible Hell|url=https://www.tentmaker.org/books/TheBibleHell.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528082710/https://www.tentmaker.org/books/TheBibleHell.html|archive-date=2021-05-28|access-date=2021-08-24|website=www.tentmaker.org}}
• Sin has negative consequences for the sinner either in this life or the afterlife. All of God's punishments for sin are corrective and remedial. None of such punishments will last forever, or result in the permanent destruction of a soul. Some Christian universalists believe in the idea of a Purgatorial Hell, or a temporary place of purification that some must undergo before their entrance into Heaven.{{cite book|author=Miriam Van Scott |title=The Encyclopedia of Hell: A Comprehensive Survey of the Underworld |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EnBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 |date=10 February 2015 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-4668-9119-7 |page=240 |chapter=Purgatorial Hell}}

In 1899 the Universalist General Convention, later called the Universalist Church of America, adopted the Five Principles: the belief in God, Jesus Christ, the immortality of the human soul, the reality of sin and universal reconciliation.{{cite web |url=http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/prof.html |title=See section entitled "Five Principles of Faith" |publisher=Auburn.edu |access-date=2011-11-09 |archive-date=2016-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815164410/http://www.auburn.edu/%7Eallenkc/prof.html |url-status=dead }}

{{Main|History of Christian universalism}}

Universalist writers such as George T. Knight have claimed that Universalism was a widely held view among theologians in Early Christianity.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Knight |first=George T. |author-link=George T. Knight (Universalist) |title=Universalists |encyclopedia=The New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge |date=1950 |orig-year=1912 |publisher=Baker Book House |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |volume=12 |page=[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc12/Page_96.html 96] |oclc=1002955}} {{Internet Archive|id=newschaffherzog39haucgoog|name=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge}} (Vol. 12). These included such important figures such as Alexandrian scholar Origen as well as Clement of Alexandria, a Christian theologian. Origen and Clement both included the existence of a non-eternal Hell in their teachings. Hell was remedial, in that it was a place one went to purge one's sins before entering into Heaven.{{cite web|url=http://stanrock.net/2015/05/20/purgatorial-hell-faq/ |title=Purgatorial Hell FAQ |date=20 May 2015 |publisher=StanRock.net |access-date=2016-01-19}}

Between 1648-1697 English activist Gerrard Winstanley, writer Richard Coppin, and dissenter Jane Leade, each taught that God would grant all human beings salvation. The same teachings were later spread throughout 18th-century France and America by George de Benneville. People who taught this doctrine in America would later become known as the Universalist Church of America.{{cite journal |last1=Wyatt |first1=Neal |last2=Dwyer |first2=Tierney V |last3=Dwyer |first3=Tierney V |year=2008 |title=Unitarian Universalism: A Research Guide |journal=Reference & User Services Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=3|pages=210–214 |doi=10.5860/rusq.47n3.210|doi-access=free }} The first Universalist Church in America was founded by John Murray (minister).{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhI2o_3hfwAC&dq=universalist+church+america+founder+murray&pg=PA18|isbn=9780310864547|title=Unitarian Universalism|date=15 December 2009|publisher=Zondervan Academic}}

The Greek term apocatastasis came to be related by some to the beliefs of Christian universalism, but central to the doctrine was the restitution, or restoration of all sinful beings to God, and to His state of blessedness. In early Patristics, usage of the term is distinct.

{{Origenism}}

Universalist theology is grounded in history, scripture, and assumptions about the nature of God. That All Shall Be Saved (2019) by Orthodox Christian theologian David Bentley Hart contains arguments from all three areas but with a focus on arguments from the nature of God. Thomas Whittemore wrote the book 100 Scriptural Proofs that Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind{{cite web|url=http://www.tentmaker.org/books/ScripturalProofs.html |title=100 Scriptural Proofs That Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind |publisher=Tentmaker.org |access-date=2017-12-17}} quoting both Old and New Testament verses which support the Universalist viewpoint.

Some Bible verses he cites and are cited by other Christian universalists are:

1. Luke 3:6: "And all people will see God's salvation." (NIV)
2. John 17:2: "since thou hast given him power over all flesh, to give eternal life to all whom thou hast given him." (RSV)
3. 1 Corinthians 15:22:{{cite web|title=The Fate of the Wicked|url=http://www.tentmaker.org/tracts/TheFateOfTheWicked.html|work=tentmaker.org|publisher=Tentmaker|access-date=29 June 2012|author=Tentmaker}} "For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive." (ESV)
4. 2 Peter 3:9: "The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance." (ESV)
5. 1 Timothy 2:3–6: "This is good, and pleases God our Savior, who wants all men to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth. For there is one God and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for ALL men—the testimony given in its proper time." (NIV)
6. 1 John 2:2: "He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not only for ours but also for the sins of the whole world." (NIV)
7. 1 Timothy 4:10: "For to this end we toil and strive, because we have our hope set on the living God, who is the Savior of all people, especially of those who believe." (ESV)
8. Romans 5:18: "Then as one man's trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one man's act of righteousness leads to acquittal and life for all men." (RSV)
9. Romans 11:32: "For God has bound all men over to disobedience so that he may have mercy on them all." (NIV)

Christian universalists point towards the mistranslations of the Greek word αιών (literally "age," but often assumed to mean "eternity") and its adjectival form αἰώνιος (usually assumed to mean "eternal" or "everlasting"), as giving rise to the idea of an endless hell and the idea that some people will never be saved.{{Cite web|url=https://www.tentmaker.org/articles/EternalPunishmentNotTrueToGreek.html|title="Eternal" Punishment (Matthew 25:46) Is NOT Found In The Greek New Testament.|website=www.tentmaker.org}}{{Cite web|url=https://carm.org/universalism/a-look-at-the-word-aionion/|title=A look at the Greed word "aionion" used by universalists | carm.org|date=December 15, 2008}} For example, Revelation 14:11 says "the smoke of their torment goes up εἰς αἰῶνας αἰώνων" which most literally means "until ages of ages" but is often paraphrased in translations as "forever and ever."See The Greek-English Interlinear ESV New Testament, 1061; or the following [https://biblehub.com/interlinear/revelation/14-11.htm online interlinear].

This Greek word is the origin of the modern English word eon, which refers to a period of time or an epoch/age.

The 19th century theologian Marvin Vincent wrote about the word aion, and the supposed connotations of "eternal" or "temporal":

Aion, transliterated aeon, is a period of longer or shorter duration, having a beginning and an end, and complete in itself. [...] Neither the noun nor the adjective, in themselves, carry the sense of endless or everlasting."{{cite web|last=Vincent|first=Marvin|title=Note on Olethron Aionion (eternal destruction)|url=http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/vincent.html|work=Word Studies in the New Testament|access-date=18 June 2012|archive-date=21 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521042920/http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/vincent.html|url-status=dead}}

[The writers of the New Testament] therefore came to employ the term aiōnios as an eschatological term, one that functioned as a handy reference to the realities of the age to come. In that way they managed to combine the more literal sense of "that which pertains to an age" with the more religious sense of "that which manifests the presence of God in a special way."Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, 85.

File:Ignatius of Antiochie, poss. by Johann Apakass (17th c., Pushkin museum).jpg Saint Ignatius of Antioch in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans (circa 100 AD).John Meyendorff, Catholicity and the Church, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-88141-006-3}}, p. 7]]

The Catholic church believes that God judges everyone based only on their moral acts,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a9.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The ninth commandment|website=www.vatican.va}} that no one should be subject to human misery,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a7.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church 2448}} that everyone is equal in dignity yet distinct in individuality before God,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice|website=www.vatican.va}} that no one should be discriminated against because of their sin or concupiscence,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sixth commandment|website=www.vatican.va}} and that apart from coercion{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p4.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Creator|website=www.vatican.va}} God exhausts every means to save mankind from evil: original holiness being intended for everyone,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p7.htm#405|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Fall|website=www.vatican.va}} the irrevocable Old Testament covenants,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sacred Scripture|website=www.vatican.va}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a1.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Revelation of God|website=www.vatican.va}} each religion being a share in the truth,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P29.HTM#-14A|title=CCC - PART 1 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 3 ARTICLE 9 PARAGRAPH 3|website=www.vatican.va}} elements of sanctification in non-Catholic Christian communities, the good people of every religion and nation,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p1.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Church in God's Plan|website=www.vatican.va}} everyone being called to baptism and confession,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a1.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sacrament of Baptism|website=www.vatican.va}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c2a4.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sacrament of penance and reconciliation|website=www.vatican.va}} and Purgatory, suffrages, and indulgences for the dead.{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a12.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - I believe in life everlasting|website=www.vatican.va}} The church believes that everyone is predestined to Heaven,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Man|website=www.vatican.va}} that no one is predestined to Hell, that everyone is redeemed by Christ's Passion,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p122a4p2.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Jesus Died Crucified|website=www.vatican.va}} that no one is excluded from the church except by sin, and that everyone can either love God by loving others unto going to Heaven or reject God by sin unto going to Hell.{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P2O.HTM|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText|website=www.vatican.va}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c1a8.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sin|website=www.vatican.va}} The church believes that God's predestination takes everything into account, and that his providence brings out of evil a greater good, as evidenced, the church believes, by the Passion of Christ being all at once predestined by God, foretold in Scripture, necessitated by original sin,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p7.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Fall|website=www.vatican.va}} authored by everyone who sins, caused by Christ's executioners, and freely planned and undergone by Christ. The church believes that everyone who goes to Heaven joins the church,{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p5.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Communion of Saints|website=www.vatican.va}} and that from the beginning God intended Israel to be the beginning of the church, wherein God would unite all persons to each other and to God.{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p1.htm#775|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Church in God's Plan|website=www.vatican.va}} The church believes that Heaven and Hell are eternal.

Author David Frawley says that Hinduism has a "background universalism" and its teachings contain a "universal relevance."[http://www.haindavakeralam.com/pluralism-and-universalism-within-hinduism-david-frawley-hk5500 Pluralism and Universalism Within Hinduism] "Hindu teachings were also denigrated accordingly and the deeper philosophies of Hinduism were often ignored, especially their universal relevance. For conversion purposes it was easier to define Hinduism in a limited way as a local phenomenon only. Yet the universality of Hindu teachings continued, though few outside of India understood this until recent years. This background universalism of Sanatana Dharma affords Hinduism a synthetic tendency, an ability to incorporate within itself a diversity of views and approaches, including at times those from groups outside of Hinduism or even opposed to Hinduism. Because of this syncretic view, sometimes Hinduism is equated with a blind universalism that accepts without discrimination anything that calls itself religious or spiritual, as if differences of spiritual teachings did not matter in any way. While this may be true of some Hindus, the Hindu tradition also contains a lively tradition of free debate on all aspects of theology, philosophy and metaphysics, showing differences as well as similarities, and not simply equating all teachings as they are. A good example of this is the debates between the dualistic and non-dualistic schools of Vedantic philosophy, but many other examples exist as well. The different sects within Hinduism have always been free to disagree, though each sect has its particular guidelines and there is an overall respect for Dharma." Hinduism is also naturally religiously pluralistic.{{Cite web|url=https://www.hafsite.org/hinduism-101/hinduism-basics|title=Hindu American Foundation "Hinduism Basics"|access-date=2017-03-14|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417162320/https://www.hafsite.org/hinduism-101/hinduism-basics|url-status=dead}} A well-known Rig Vedic hymn says: "Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti" meaning, "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously."Rig Veda 1.164.46 Similarly, in the Bhagavad Gītā (4:11), God, manifesting as an incarnation, states: "As people approach me, so I receive them. All paths lead to me."[https://books.google.com/books?id=56UM3BIvbHYC&q=as+people+approach+me Page 194] in Eknath Easwaran (2008). Timeless wisdom: Passages for meditation from the world's saints & sages (see article). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press. {{ISBN|1-58638-027-3}}. Similar to Eknath Easwaran (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=a-Oh_-rK5SQC&q=approach+me The Bhagavad Gita], 2nd ed. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press, p. 117. ISBN

1586380192 (which substitutes "they" for "people"). Transliteration from Winthrop Sargeant (1984). The Bhagavad Gita. Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 211. {{ISBN|0-87395-831-4}}, which translates the same passage as "They who, in whatever way, take refuge in Me, them I reward." The Hindu religion has no theological difficulties in accepting degrees of truth in other religions. Hinduism emphasizes that everyone actually worships the same God, whether one knows it or not.See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) {{ISBN|1-884852-04-1}}

While Hinduism has an openness and tolerance towards other religions, it also has a wide range of diversity within it.{{Cite web|url=https://www.hafsite.org/hinduism-101/hinduism-basics|title=Hindu American Foundation Hinduism Basics "It is a richly diverse family of philosophies, traditions, and practices that have been followed primarily throughout Asia for thousands of years."|access-date=2017-03-14|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417162320/https://www.hafsite.org/hinduism-101/hinduism-basics|url-status=dead}} There are considered to be six orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy/theology,{{Cite web|url=https://veden-akademie.de/en/startseite-en/|title=Veden Akademie DE}} as well as multiple unorthodox or "heterodox" traditions called darshanas.{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Manisha|date=2003|title=SOME FACETS OF CHANGE AND TRANSITION IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS IN THE" DABISTAN"|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145488|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=64|pages=518-524}}

{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu reform movements}}

Hindu universalism, also called Neo-Vedanta{{Cite web|url=https://bharatabharati.in/2012/02/15/neo-vedanta-the-problem-with-hindu-universalism-frank-gaetano-morales/|title=Neo-Vedanta: The problem with Hindu universalism – Frank Morales|date=February 15, 2012}} and neo-Hinduism,{{sfn|King|2002|p=93}} is a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It denotes the ideology that all religions are true and therefore worthy of toleration and respect.{{cite book|title=What Is Hinduism?: Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith|year=2007|publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications|isbn=978-1934145005|page=416}}

It is a modern interpretation that aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism"{{sfn|Yelle|2012|p=338}} with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} For example, it presents that:

{{Blockquote|... an imagined "integral unity" that was probably little more than an "imagined" view of the religious life that pertained only to a cultural elite and that empirically speaking had very little reality "on the ground," as it were, throughout the centuries of cultural development in the South Asian region.{{sfn|Larson|2012|p=313}}}}

Hinduism embraces universalism by conceiving the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.(Rigveda 1:164:46) "Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti" - Truth is one; sages call it many names(Maha Upanishad: Chapter 6, Verse 72) "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" - The entire world is a one big family{{Cite book |last=Badlani |first=Hiro |title=Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom |publisher=iUniverse |year=2008 |page=303 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NrQhyxH-GgC |isbn=978-0-595-70183-4}}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}

This modernised re-interpretation has become a broad current in Indian culture,{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}}{{sfn|Sinari|2000}} extending far beyond the Dashanami Sampradaya, the Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya founded by Adi Shankara. An early exponent of Hindu Universalism was Ram Mohan Roy, who established the Brahmo Samaj.{{sfn|Ghazi|2010}} Hindu Universalism was popularised in the 20th century in both India and the west by Vivekananda{{sfn|Michaelson|2009|p=79-81}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} Veneration for all other religions was articulated by Gandhi:

{{Blockquote|After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that [1] all religions are true; [2] all religions have some error in them; [3] all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible.M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.}}

Western orientalists played an important role in this popularisation, regarding Vedanta to be the "central theology of Hinduism".{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} Oriental scholarship portrayed Hinduism as a "single world religion",{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} and denigrated the heterogeneity of Hindu beliefs and practices as 'distortions' of the basic teachings of Vedanta.{{sfn|King|1999|p=135}}

{{Further|Ummah|Divisions of the world in Islam|People of the Book|Dhimmi|Dawah|}}

{{Original research|date=June 2018}}

Islam recognizes to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Quran identifying Jews, Christians, and "Sabi'un" (usually taken as a reference to the Mandaeans) as "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab). Later Islamic theologians expanded this definition to include Zoroastrians, and later even Hindus, as the early Islamic empire brought many people professing these religions under its dominion, but the Qur'an explicitly identifies only Jews, Christians, and Sabians as People of the Book.{{cite book|last=Crone|first=Patricia|title=God's Rule: Government and Islam: Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought|year=2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13291-6|page=472}}{{Request quotation|date=November 2015}}^, {{cite book|last1=Lapidus|first1=Ira M.|title=Ira M. Lapidus|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521514309|page=1000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJ&q=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies}}{{failed verification|date=November 2015}}^, {{cite book|last1=Karsh|first1=Efraim|title=Islamic Imperialism: A History|date=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=9780300122633|page=304 |url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Islamic%20Imperialism_A%20History_2nd%20Ed_Karsh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215112417/http://ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Islamic%20Imperialism_A%20History_2nd%20Ed_Karsh.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 15, 2015}}{{failed verification|date=November 2015}} The relation between Islam and universalism has assumed crucial importance in the context of political Islam or Islamism, particularly in reference to Sayyid Qutb, a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood movement, and one of the key contemporary philosophers of Islam.{{cite journal |last=Mura |first=Andrea |year=2014 |title=The Inclusive Dynamics of Islamic Universalism: From the Vantage Point of Sayyid Qutb's Critical Philosophy |journal=Comparative Philosophy |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=29–54 |issn=2151-6014|doi=10.31979/2151-6014(2014).050106 |doi-access=free }}

There are several views within Islam with respect to Universalism. According to the most inclusive teachings all peoples of the book have a chance of salvation. For example, Surah 2:62 states: {{blockquote|Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.|{{qref|2|62|c=y}}}}

However, the most exclusive teachings disagree. For example, Surah 9:5 states:{{blockquote|But once the Sacred Months have passed, kill the polytheists ˹who violated their treaties˺ wherever you find them, capture them, besiege them, and lie in wait for them on every way. But if they repent, perform prayers, and pay alms-tax, then set them free. Indeed, Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.|{{qref|9|5|c=y}}}}

The interpretation of all of these passages are hotly contested amongst various schools of thought and branches of Islam as is the doctrine of abrogation (naskh) which is used to determine which verses take precedence, based on reconstructed chronology, with later verses superseding earlier ones. The ahadith also play a major role in this, and different schools of thought assign different weightings and rulings of authenticity to different hadith, with the four schools of Sunni thought accepting the Six Authentic Collections, generally along with the Muwatta Imam Malik. Depending on the level of acceptance of rejection of certain traditions, the interpretation of the Koran can be changed immensely, from the Qur'anists who reject the ahadith, to the ahl al-hadith, who hold the entirety of the traditional collections in great reverence.

Some Islamic scholars{{cite book|last=Ibn Kathir|first=Ismail (1301-1373)|title=Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Aziz (Tafsir Ibn Kathir)|year=2000|publisher=Maktaba Darussalam|location=Riyadh, Saudi Arabia|isbn=978-1-59144-020-8|page=6608|edition=English Abridged|editor=Sheikh Safiur-Rahman Al-Mubarakpuri|language=en, ar}}{{cite web|url=http://english.islamway.com/bindex.php?section=article&id=211|title=Dar Al-Islam And Dar Al-Harb: Its Definition and Significance|publisher=IslamWay (English)|date=2002-05-27|access-date=2015-05-12|last=Khalil|first=Ahmed}} view the world as bipartite, consisting of the House of Islam, that is, where people live under the Sharia; and the House of War, that is, where the people do not live under Sharia, which must be proselytized{{cite book|last=Ye'or|first=Bat|title=The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam|year=1985|publisher=Farleign Dickinson University Press |page=444|isbn=978-0838632628}}{{cite book|last=Ye'or|first=Bat|title=The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude: 7th–20th Centuries |publisher=Farleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-3688-6|page=522|year=1996}} using whatever resources available, including, in some traditionalist and conservative interpretations,Ibn Kathir's Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Aziz the use of violence, as holy struggle in the path of God,Sayyid Qutb Milestones to either convert its inhabitants to Islam, or to rule them under the Shariah (cf. dhimmi).{{cite book|last=Durie |first=Mark|title=The Third Choice: Islam, Dhimmitude and Freedom|year=2010|publisher=Deror Books|isbn=978-0-9807223-1-4|page=288}}

{{Main|Jewish views on religious pluralism}}

{{See also|Noahidism}}

File:Köln-Tora-und-Innenansicht-Synagoge-Glockengasse-040.JPG at old Glockengasse Synagogue (reconstruction), Cologne]]

Judaism teaches that God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique covenant with God, and one of their beliefs is that Jewish people were charged by the Torah with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah to other nations. This view does not preclude a belief that God also has a relationship with other peoples—rather, Judaism holds that God had entered into a covenant with all humanity as Noachides, and that Jews and non-Jews alike have a relationship with God, as well as being universal in the sense that it is open to all mankind.{{cite journal |last1=Polish |first1=David |year=1985 |title=Covenant-Jewish Universalism and Particularism |journal=Judaism |volume=34 |issue=3 |page=284 }}

Modern Jews such as Emmanuel Levinas advocate a universalist mindset that is performed through particularist behavior.Magid, Shaul. [https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-arts-and-culture/264145/social-justice-and-the-future-of-judaism "Social Justice and the Future of ...."] Tablet Magazine. 13 June 2018. 5 February 2019. An on-line organization, the Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute founded and led by Steven Blane, who calls himself an "American Jewish Universalist Rabbi", believes in a more inclusive version of Jewish Universalism, stating that "God equally chose all nations to be lights unto the world, and we have much to learn and share with each other. We can only accomplish Tikkun Olam by our unconditional acceptance of each other's peaceful doctrines."{{cite web|title=Jewish Universalism|url=http://www.jsli.net/jewish-universalism|work=Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute|publisher=Google Inc|access-date=29 June 2012|author=Staff}}

{{main|Manichaeism}}

Manichaeism, like Christian Gnosticism and Zurvanism, was arguably in some ways inherently universalist.{{cite journal|title=Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire|journal=Numen |author=Manfred Hutter |date=January 1993|publisher=BRILL|jstor=3270395|volume=40|issue=1 |pages=2–15 |doi=10.1163/156852793X00022 }}{{page needed|date=November 2015}} Yet in other respects, it was quite contrary to universalistic principles, holding instead to an eternal dualism.White, Restoration, 107: "...unless, with the Manichees, we make two eternal principles, one of good, the other of evil, which is all one as to make two Gods."

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{{more citations needed section|date=February 2012}}

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}}

In Sikhism, all the religions of the world are compared to rivers flowing into a single ocean. Although the Sikh gurus did not agree with the practices of fasting, idolatry and pilgrimage during their times, they stressed that all religions should be tolerated. The Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains the writings of not just the Sikh guru themselves, but the writings of several Hindu and Muslim saints, known as the Bhagats.

The very first word of the Sikh scripture is "Ik", followed by "Omkar". This literally means that there is only one god, and that one is wholesome, inclusive of the whole universe. It further goes on to state that all of creation, and all energy is part of this primordial being. As such, it is described in scripture over and over again, that all that occurs is part of the divine will, and as such, has to be accepted. It occurs for a reason, even if it is beyond the grasp of one person to understand.

Although Sikhism does not teach that men are created as an image of God, it states that the essence of the One is to be found throughout all of its creation.{{Citation |title=Sikh Philosophy |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3044-4_5 |work=International Bibliography of Sikh Studies |year=2005 |pages=163–181 |place=Berlin/Heidelberg |publisher=Springer-Verlag |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3044-4_5 |isbn=1-4020-3043-6 |access-date=2022-05-01|url-access=subscription }} As was said by Yogi Bhajan, the man who is credited with having brought Sikhism to the West:

{{quote|If you can't see God in all, you can't see God at all.|Sri Singh Sahib, Yogi Bhajan{{cite web|url=https://www.sikhdharma.org/about-the-siri-singh-sahib-yogi-bhajan/|title=About the Siri Singh Sahib – Sikh Dharma International|website=www.sikhdharma.org|access-date=2017-11-02}}}}

The First Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak said himself:

{{quote|There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim".{{cite web|url=http://www.sikhs.org/guru1.htm|title=Sikhism Religion of the Sikh People|website=www.sikhs.org|access-date=2016-11-19}}{{cite web |url=http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/gurunanakforchildren/chapter4/#No%20Hindu,%20and%20no%20Muslim|title=Guru Nanak (for Children) - No Hindu, and no Muslim|last=Munde |first=Amarpreet Singh|website=www.gurmat.info|access-date=2016-11-19}}}}

By this, Guru Nanak meant that there is no real "religion" in God's eyes. Unlike many of the major world religions, Sikhism does not have missionaries, instead it believes men have the freedom to find their own path to salvation.

{{Main|Unitarian Universalism}}

Image:UnitarianUniversalistChurchsignRochesterMN.JPG, United States]]

Unitarian Universalism (UU) is a theologically liberal religion characterized by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning".(The 4th principle of Unitarian Universalism)[http://www.uua.org/visitors/6798.shtml UUA.org Seven principles] Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed; rather, they are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth and by the understanding that an individual's theology is a result of that search and not a result of obedience to an authoritarian requirement. Unitarian Universalists draw from all major world religions{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Rastafarianism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000816004118/http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Rastafarianism |url-status=usurped |archive-date=August 16, 2000 |title=Major Religions Ranked by Size |publisher=Adherents.com |access-date=April 19, 2013}} and many different theological sources and have a wide range of beliefs and practices.

While having its origins in Christianity, UU is no longer a Christian church. As of 2006, fewer than about 20% of Unitarian Universalists identified themselves as Christian.{{cite book |last=Ford |first=James Ishmael |title=Zen Master Who? |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/zenmasterwhoguid00jame/page/187 187] |isbn=0-86171-509-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/zenmasterwhoguid00jame/page/187 }} Contemporary Unitarian Universalism espouses a pluralist approach to religious belief, whereby members may describe themselves as humanist, agnostic, deist, atheist, pagan, Christian, monotheist, pantheist, polytheist, or assume no label at all.

The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was formed in 1961, a consolidation of the American Unitarian Association, established in 1825, and the Universalist Church of America,Harvard Divinity School: [http://div.hds.harvard.edu/library/bms/merger_timeline_1900s.html Timeline of Significant Events in the Merger of the Unitarian and Universalist Churches During the 1900s] established in 1866. It is headquartered in Boston, and mainly serves churches in the United States. The Canadian Unitarian Council became an independent body in 2002.CUC-UUA Tradition. Canadian Unitarian Council [http://cuc.ca/who_we_are/cuc-uua_transition.htm Growing Vital Religious Communities In Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706174556/http://cuc.ca/who_we_are/cuc-uua_transition.htm |date=2011-07-06 }}

File:Faravahar.svg (or Ferohar), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit)]]

{{main|Zoroastrianism}}

Some varieties of Zoroastrian (such as Zurvanism) are universalistic in application to all races, but not necessarily universalist in the sense of universal salvation.Jonathan Porter Berkey The formation of Islam: religion and society in the Near East 2003 p28 "This is not to say that there was no universalist dimension to Zoroastrian religious life; but what universalism there was derived directly, and to a greater degree than in the case of Rome and Christianity, from the explicit connection between religion and the state."{{failed verification|date=November 2015}}

{{See also|Universalism and the Latter Day Saint movement}}

==See also==

{{Portal|Philosophy|Politics|Religion}}

{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}

• Ananda Marga
• Christianity:
• Liberal Catholic Church
• Primitive Baptist Universalist
• Religious Society of Friends
• Schwarzenau Brethren
• Swedenborgianism (The New Church)
• Trinitarian Universalism
• Church Universal and Triumphant
• Comparative religion
• Ecumenism
• Hypothetical universalism
• George MacDonald
• Mahatma Gandhi Foundation
• Omnism
• Perennial philosophy
• Post-theism
• Religious liberalism
• Religious pluralism
• Spannian universalism
• Subud
• Universal basic income
• Universal basic services
• Universal health care
• Universal suffrage
• Universal Sufism

{{colend}}

{{Reflist|22em}}

• {{cite journal |last=Mura |first=Andrea |year=2014 |title=The Inclusive Dynamics of Islamic Universalism: From the Vantage Point of Sayyid Qutb's Critical Philosophy |journal=Comparative Philosophy |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=29–54 |issn=2151-6014|doi=10.31979/2151-6014(2014).050106 |doi-access=free }}
• {{Cite book |last=Casara |first=E. |year=1984 |title=Universalism in America}}
• {{Cite book |last=Ghazi |first=Abidullah Al-Ansari |year=2010 |title=Raja Rammohun Roy: Encounter with Islam and Christianity and the Articulation of Hindu Self-Consciousness |publisher=Xlibris Corporation }}{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}
• {{Cite book |last=King|first=Richard|author-link=Richard E. King|year=1999|title=Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East"|publisher=Routledge}}
• {{Cite book |last=King |first=Richard |year=2002 |title=Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and 'The Mystic East' |publisher=Routledge}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Larson |first=Gerald James |title=The Issue of Not Being Different Enough: Some Reflections on Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |url=http://geraldjameslarson.com/pdf/Being_Different_Journal_Hindu_Studies.pdf |volume=16|issue=3|publication-date=December 2012|pages=311–322 |doi=10.1007/s11407-012-9129-8|year=2012|s2cid=144728948 }}
• {{Cite book |last=Michaelson |first=Jay |year=2009 |title=Everything Is God: The Radical Path of Nondual Judaism |publisher=Shambhala}}
• {{Cite book |last=Sinari |first=Ramakant |year=2000 |chapter=Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy |publisher=Centre for Studies in Civilizations |series=Volume II, Part 2: Advaita Vedanta|location=Delhi |editor=Chattopadhyana |title=History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization}}
• {{cite journal |last=Woo |first=B. Hoon |title= Karl Barth's Doctrine of the Atonement and Universalism |journal= Korea Reformed Journal |year=2014 |volume=32 |url=https://www.academia.edu/10186965 |pages=243–291}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Yelle |first=Robert A. |title=Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=16 |issue=3|publication-date=December 2012|pages=335–348 |doi=10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z|year=2012|s2cid=144950049 }}

• {{cite book |last=Ankerl |first=Guy |title=Global communication without universal civilization |publisher=INU Press |location=Geneva, Switzerland |volume=1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |year=2000 |isbn=9782881550041}}
• {{citation |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |contribution=Chapter eight: Christianity as the Universal religion |editor-last=Palmquist |editor-first=Stephen |title=Kant's critical religion |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot, Hants, England Burlington, Vermont |year=2000 |isbn=9780754613336 |postscript=.}} [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2 Online.]
• {{citation |last=Scott |first=Joan W. |author-link=Joan Wallach Scott |contribution=French Universalism in the nineties |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=Marilyn |editor-link=Marilyn Friedman |title=Women and citizenship |pages=35–51 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford New York |series=Studies in Feminist Philosophy |year=2005 |isbn=9780195175356 |postscript=.}}

• [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15181a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article on Universalists as a Protestant denomination]
• [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01599a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article on Apocatastasis/apokatastatis]
• [https://tentmaker.org/ TentMaker website – Many free books and articles on Universalism]

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