weather buoy

File:Weather Buoy MDS.jpg

The first known proposal for surface weather observations at sea occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927, when Grover Loening stated that "weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the seaplane to have an equally long range, would result in regular ocean flights within ten years."{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA121|page=121|date=August 1927|access-date=2011-01-18|journal=Popular Science|publisher=Popular Science Publishing Company, Inc.|volume=111|title=The First Plane to Germany|author=George Lee Dowd Jr.|issue=2}} Starting in 1939, United States Coast Guard vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5A9LCujs08C&pg=PA129|pages=127–130|author=Malcolm Francis Willoughby|title=The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II|date=1980-06-01|isbn=978-0-405-13081-6|access-date=2011-01-18}}

During World War II The German Navy deployed weather buoys (Wetterfunkgerät See — WFS) at fifteen fixed positions in the North Atlantic and Barents Sea. They were launched from U-boats into a maximum depth of ocean of 1000 fathoms (1,800 metres), limited by the length of the anchor cable. Overall height of the body was 10.5 metres (of which most was submerged), surmounted by a mast and extendible aerial of 9 metres. Data (air and water temperature, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity) were encoded and transmitted four times a day. When the batteries (high voltage dry-cells for the valves, and nickel-iron for other power and to raise and lower the aerial mast) were exhausted, after about eight to ten weeks, the unit self-destructed.{{cite book|last1=Dege|first1=Wilhelm|title=War north of 80 : the last German Arctic weather station of World War II.|date=2003|publisher=Arctic Institute of North America|location=Calgary, Alta.|isbn=9780870817687|pages=300–301}}{{cite journal|last1=Selinger|first1=Franz|title=Deutsche automatische Wetterstationen in der Arktis 1942-1945|journal=Polarforschung|date=1985|issue=55|pages=55–67|place=Bremerhaven}}

The Navy Oceanographic Meteorological Automatic Device (NOMAD) buoy's {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=on}} hull was originally designed in the 1940s for the United States Navy’s offshore data collection program. The United States Navy tested marine automatic weather stations for hurricane conditions between 1956 and 1958, though radio transmission range and battery life was limited.{{cite journal|url=ftp://ftp.library.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1959.pdf|title=Marine Automatic Weather Stations|author=J. A. Shirley|page=83|date=May 1959|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|volume=18|number=5|access-date=2017-08-10|archive-date=2019-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619014424/ftp://ftp.library.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1959.pdf|url-status=dead}} Between 1951 and 1970, a total of 21 NOMAD buoys were built and deployed at sea.{{cite book|author1=G. L. Timpe |author2=N. Van de Voorde |title='Challenges of Our Changing Global Environment'. Conference Proceedings. OCEANS '95 MTS/IEEE |chapter=NOMAD buoys: An overview of forty years of use |name-list-style=amp |pages=309–315|volume=1|doi=10.1109/OCEANS.1995.526788|date=October 1995|isbn=0-933957-14-9|s2cid=111274406 }} Since the 1970s, weather buoy use has superseded the role of weather ships, as they are cheaper to operate and maintain.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40|page=40|author=National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction|title=The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council|year=1974|access-date=2011-01-18|publisher=National Academies}} The earliest reported use of drifting buoys was to study the behavior of ocean currents within the Sargasso Sea in 1972 and 1973.{{cite journal|journal=Mariners Weather Log|title=Scientists Discover Western Atlantic Currents Are Highly Variable|author=Elwyn E. Wilson|date=July 1973|volume=17|number=4|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}} Drifting buoys have been used increasingly since 1979, and as of 2005, 1250 drifting buoys roamed the Earth's oceans.{{cite web|url=http://oceanmotion.org/html/gatheringdata/buoysanddrifers.htm|author=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|author-link=NASA|title=Ocean Motion and Surface Currents|date=2009-04-15|access-date=2011-01-28}}

Between 1985 and 1994, an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean to monitor and help predict the El Niño phenomenon.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DO5K1NK_ZewC&pg=PA62|title=Global energy and water cycles|author1=K. A. Browning |author2=Robert J. Gurney |page=62|access-date=2011-01-09|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56057-3}} Hurricane Katrina capsized a {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} buoy for the first time in the history of the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) on August 28, 2005.{{cite web|url=http://www.hurricanescience.org/science/observation/ships/weatherbuoys/|author=Hurricanes: Science and Society|title=Weather Buoys|publisher=University of Rhode Island|year=2010|access-date=2011-01-28}} On June 13, 2006, drifting buoy 26028 ended its long-term data collection of sea surface temperature after transmitting for 10 years, 4 months, and 16 days, which is the longest known data collection time for any drifting buoy.{{cite web|url=http://www.argos-system.org/documents/publications/newsletter/anl_70.pdf|page=5|title=ARGOS Guinness Book|date=June 2010|access-date=2011-01-28|author=Collecte Localisation Satellites|archive-date=2011-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725014228/http://www.argos-system.org/documents/publications/newsletter/anl_70.pdf|url-status=dead}} The first weather buoy in the Southern Ocean was deployed by the Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS) on March 17, 2010.{{cite journal|journal=Marine Matters|date=May 2010|issue=8|page=1|url=http://imos.org.au/fileadmin/user_upload/shared/IMOS%20General/documents/newsletters/IMOS_newsletter_8_May_2010.pdf|title=IMOS deploys the world's first weather buoy in the remote Southern Ocean|author=Integrated Marine Observing System|publisher=Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research|access-date=2016-08-20|archive-date=2020-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320121237/http://imos.org.au/fileadmin/user_upload/shared/IMOS%20General/documents/newsletters/IMOS_newsletter_8_May_2010.pdf|url-status=dead}}

{{See also|Weather station}}

Weather buoys, like other types of weather stations, measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean surface, wind speed (steady and gusting), barometric pressure, and wind direction. Since they lie in oceans and lakes, they also measure water temperature, wave height, and dominant wave period. Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio, cellular, or satellite communications to meteorological centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study. Both moored buoys and drifting buoys (drifting in the open ocean currents) are used. Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of {{convert|3|m|ft}}. Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies. These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hH2NkL_318wC&pg=PA263|pages=237–238|title=Oceanography from Space: Revisited|author=Vittorio Barale|year=2010|access-date=2011-01-09|isbn=978-90-481-8680-8|publisher=Springer}} Other than their use as a source of meteorological data, their data is used within research programs, emergency response to chemical spills, legal proceedings, and engineering design. Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid, like other types of buoys.

File:Mooredbuoytypes.gif

Weather buoys range in diameter from {{convert|1.5|-|12|m|ft|sigfig=1}}. Those that are placed in shallow waters are smaller in size and moored using only chains, while those in deeper waters use a combination of chains, nylon, and buoyant polypropylene.{{cite web|url=http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/mooredbuoy.shtml|title=Moored Buoy Program|author=National Data Buoy Center|author-link=National Data Buoy Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=2008-02-04|access-date=2011-01-29|archive-date=2012-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306093620/http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/mooredbuoy.shtml|url-status=dead}} Since they do not have direct navigational significance, moored weather buoys are classed as special marks under the IALA scheme, are coloured yellow, and display a yellow flashing light at night.

Discus buoys are round and moored in deep ocean locations, with a diameter of {{convert|10|-|12|m|ft}}.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXxIieLNl2gC&pg=PA13|title=The Sailor's Weather Guide|author=Jeff Markell|page=13|publisher=Sheridan House, Inc.|year=2003|access-date=2011-01-27|isbn=978-1-57409-158-8}}{{cite journal| title =Watching the Oceans: A Report From General Dynamics| journal =Naval Institute Proceedings| volume =93| issue =1| pages =28–29| publisher =United States Naval Institute| location =Annapolis, Maryland| date =January 1967| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=nmU7AAAAIAAJ&q=watching+the+oceans+a+report+from+general+dynamics+monster+buoy&pg=RA2-PA28| issn =0041-798X| access-date =16 June 2020 }} The aluminum {{convert|3|m|ft|adj=on|0}} buoy is a very rugged meteorological ocean platform that has long term survivability. The expected service life of the {{convert|3|m|ft|adj=on|0}} platform is in excess of 20 years and properly maintained, these buoys have not been retired due to corrosion. The NOMAD is a unique moored aluminum environmental monitoring buoy designed for deployments in extreme conditions near the coast and across the Great Lakes. NOMADs moored off the Atlantic Canadian coast commonly experience winter storms with maximum wave heights approaching {{convert|20|m|ft}} into the Gulf of Maine.

File:12-meter discus buoys.jpg

File:SVP-B.jpg Drifting buoys are smaller than their moored counterparts, measuring {{convert|30|-|40|cm|in}} in diameter. They are made of plastic or fiberglass, and tend to be either bi-colored, with white on one half and another color on the other half of the float, or solidly black or blue. It measures a smaller subset of meteorological variables when compared to its moored counterpart, with a barometer measuring pressure in a tube on its top. They have a thermistor (metallic thermometer) on its base, and an underwater drogue, or sea anchor, located {{convert|15|m|ft}} below the ocean surface connected with the buoy by a long, thin tether.{{cite web|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dac/gdp_drifter.php|publisher=The Global Drifter Program|author1=R. Lumpkin |author2=M. Pazos |name-list-style=amp |title=What's a Drifter?|date=2010-06-08|access-date=2011-01-29}}

File:Noaabouy.jpg]]

A large network of coastal buoys near the United States is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center,{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/meteorologicalbu0000unse/page/11 11]|title=The meteorological buoy and coastal marine automated network for the United States|author=Lance F. Bosart, William A. Sprigg, National Research Council|publisher=National Academies Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-309-06088-2|url=https://archive.org/details/meteorologicalbu0000unse/page/11}} with deployment and maintenance performed by the United States Coast Guard.{{cite web|url=http://www.ofcm.gov/fp-fy09/pdf/3Sec3f-DHS.pdf|page=2|title=Department of Homeland Security Weather Programs|author=Department of Homeland Security|author-link=Department of Homeland Security|publisher=Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology|date=2009-06-02|access-date=2011-01-29}} For South Africa, the South African Weather Service deploys and retrieves their own buoys, while the Meteorological Service of New Zealand performs the same task for their country.{{cite web|author=Data Buoy Cooperation Panel|title=Buoy Recover Techniques|pages=1–4|url=http://www.jcommops.org/dbcp/doc/buoyRecoveries/Buoy%20Recovery%20Techniques.pdf|year=2009|access-date=2011-01-29|publisher=Joint WMO-IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology in situ Observing Platform Support Centre}} Environment Canada operates and deploys buoys for their country.{{cite web|url=http://ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=656F7CE5-1|title=Marine Weather Observations|author=Environment Canada|date=2010-12-30|access-date=2011-01-29|publisher=Government of Canada}} The Met Office in Great Britain deploys drifting buoys across both the northern and southern Atlantic oceans.{{cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/how-forecasts-are-made/observations/marine-observations|title=Marine Observations|author=Met Office|year=2011|access-date=2023-02-05}}

Wind reports from moored buoys have smaller error than those from ships. Complicating the comparison of the two measurements are that NOMAD buoys report winds at a height of {{convert|5|m|ft}}, while ships report winds from a height of {{convert|20|-|40|m|ft}}.{{cite journal |url=http://www.homogenisation.org/files/private/WG1/Bibliography/Method_Description/Climate/thomas_etal_2004.pdf |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=25 |pages=979–995 |doi=10.1002/joc.1176 |year=2005 |author1=Bridget R. Thomas |author2=Elizabeth C. Kent |author3=Val R. Swail |name-list-style=amp |title=Methods to Homogenize Wind Speeds From Ships and Buoys |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |bibcode=2005IJCli..25..979T |issue=7 |s2cid=128839496 |access-date=2018-03-01 |archive-date=2018-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417040134/http://www.homogenisation.org/files/private/WG1/Bibliography/Method_Description/Climate/thomas_etal_2004.pdf |url-status=dead }} Sea surface temperature measured in the intake port of large ships have a warm bias of around {{convert|0.6|C-change|F-change|sigfig=1}} due to the heat of the engine room.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ew-bJDIDIC&pg=PA24|pages=24–25|title=Data analysis methods in physical oceanography|author1=William J. Emery |author2=Richard E. Thomson |year=2001|access-date=2011-01-09|isbn=978-0-444-50757-0|publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing}} Since 2000 sea-surface temperatures have increasingly been measured by thermometers on buoys; the apparent cooler temperatures led to an underestimation of global warming since 2000.{{cite journal|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19772-ships-and-buoys-made-global-warming-look-slower-.html|journal=New Scientist|author=Michael Marshall|date=2010-11-16|access-date=2011-01-29|title=Ships and buoys made global warming look slower}} Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of {{convert|3|m|ft|0}}.

File:Ndbc.noaa.gov-images-buoys-12m.jpg|12-Meter Discus Buoy

File:Ndbc.noaa.gov-images-buoys-12m1.jpg|12-Meter Discus Buoy

File:Ndbc.noaa.gov-images-buoys-10m.jpg|10 m discus buoy

File:Ndbc.noaa.gov-images-buoys-10madcp.jpg|10 m discus buoy

File:Ndbc.noaa.gov-images-buoys-10uscg.jpg|10 m discus buoy

{{reflist|2}}

{{Commons category|Weather buoys}}

• [https://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/ USA National Data Buoy Center]
• [http://www.sailwx.info/ Ship locations and weather buoys] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121208215446/http://www.sailwx.info/ |date=2012-12-08 }}
• [http://www.jcommops.org/dbcp Data Buoy Cooperation Panel (DBCP)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211154749/http://www.jcommops.org/dbcp/ |date=2010-02-11 }}
• [http://www.vos.noaa.gov/MWL/dec_05/rita.shtml Hurricane Rita and the Buoys]

{{Meteorological equipment}}

{{Earth-based meteorological observation}}

Category:Meteorological data and networks

Category:Nautical terminology

Category:Oceanographic instrumentation

Category:1951 introductions

Category:Buoyage