white-nose syndrome

File:Little brown bat affected by white nose syndrome.jpg (Myotis lucifugus) affected by white-nose syndrome]]

{{As of| 2012}} white-nose syndrome was estimated to have caused 5.7 million to 6.7 million bat deaths in North America. In 2008 bats declined in some caves by more than 90%.{{cite news |title=Bats Perish, and No One Knows Why | last = Kelley | first = Tina | name-list-style = vanc |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/25/science/25bats.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin/ |date=2008-03-25 |access-date=2008-03-25}} Alan Hicks with the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation described the impact in 2008 as "unprecedented" and "the gravest threat to bats...ever seen."{{cite news |title=The Gravest Threat to Bats Ever Seen |last=Shapley |first=Dan |name-list-style=vanc |date=2008-02-05 |work=The Daily Green |url=http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/white-nose-syndrome-bats-47020509 |access-date=2008-02-14 |archive-date=2014-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104135706/http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/white-nose-syndrome-bats-47020509 |url-status=dead }} In 2016, it was reported that bat populations in the caves and mines of Georgia had been decimated in a similar fashion, after the fungus was first detected in there in 2013.{{cite web|url=http://savannahnow.com/news/2016-05-19/fungal-disease-sapping-bats-all-over-georgia|access-date=21 May 2016|date=19 May 2016|title=Fungal disease sapping bats all over Georgia|publisher=Savannah Now}}

{{As of| 2021}}, twelve North American bat species, including two endangered species and one threatened species have been affected by WNS or exposed to the causative fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, with impacts varying widely.{{cite web|url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/about/bats-affected-wns |title=Bats affected by WNS |publisher=White-Nose Syndrome |access-date=22 October 2021}} As of 2012 four species have suffered substantial declines and extinction of at least one species was predicted. Declines included species already listed as endangered in the US, such as the Indiana bat, whose hibernacula, in many states, have been affected.{{cite news |title=Unexplained "White Nose" Disease Killing Northeast Bats |publisher=Environment News Service |date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jan2008/2008-01-31-094.asp |access-date=2008-02-14}} The once-common little brown bat has suffered a major population collapse in the northeastern US,{{cite journal | vauthors = Frick WF, Pollock JF, Hicks AC, Langwig KE, Reynolds DS, Turner GG, Butchkoski CM, Kunz TH | title = An emerging disease causes regional population collapse of a common North American bat species | journal = Science | volume = 329 | issue = 5992 | pages = 679–82 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20689016 | doi = 10.1126/science.1188594 | bibcode = 2010Sci...329..679F | s2cid = 43601856 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/de46ba8ee46c4d968a6646295c08412cb10ccbbf }} although some individuals may be genetically resilient to the disease.{{cite journal | vauthors = Auteri GG, Knowles LL | title = Decimated little brown bats show potential for adaptive change | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 10 | page = 3023 | date = February 2020 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-020-59797-4 | pmid = 32080246 | pmc = 7033193 | bibcode = 2020NatSR..10.3023A }} In 2012 the northern long-eared myotis (Myotis septentrionalis) was reported to be extirpated from all sites where the disease has been present for more than four years. In 2009, the Virginia big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus), the official state bat of Virginia,[http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13702854 "Cute but contagious"] The Economist, May 21, 2009 and the gray bat had yet to suffer measurable declines.

Beyond the direct effect on bat populations, WNS has broader ecological implications. The Forest Service estimated in 2008 that the die-off from white-nose syndrome means that at least 2.4 million pounds (1.1 million kg or 1100 tons) of insects will go uneaten and become a financial burden to farmers, possibly leading to crop damage or having other economic impact in New England.{{cite news |title=Die-off of bats could hurt area crops | last = Daley | first = Beth | name-list-style = vanc |work=The Boston Globe |url=https://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/02/07/die_off_of_bats_could_hurt_area_crops/ |date=2008-02-07 |access-date=2008-02-14}} It is estimated that bats save farmers in the U.S. 3 billion dollars annually in pest control services. In addition, numerous bat species provide crucial pollination and seed dispersal services.{{cite web|title = White Nose Syndrome of Bats Fact Sheet {{!}} Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife|url = http://wdfw.wa.gov/conservation/health/wns/|website = wdfw.wa.gov|access-date = 2016-02-03}}

In 2008, comparisons were raised to colony collapse disorder, another poorly understood phenomenon resulting in the abrupt disappearance of western honey bee colonies,{{cite news |title=Northeast Bat Die-Off Mirrors Honeybee Collapse |work=All Things Considered |publisher=National Public Radio | last = Mann | first = Bryan | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=19174588&ft=1&f=1001 |date=2008-02-19 |access-date=2008-02-20 |format=audio}} and with chytridiomycosis, a fungal skin disease linked with worldwide declines in amphibian populations.{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081030144613.htm|title=Newly Identified Fungus Implicated In White-nose Syndrome|date=2008-10-31|website=Science Daily|access-date=2009-10-25}}

File:A Million Bats Dead from Mysterious Disease.ogv report about the disease]]

Biologists of the US Fish and Wildlife Service have been collecting information at each site in regard to the number of bats affected, the geographic extent of the outbreaks and samples of affected bats. They developed a geographic database to track the location of sites, where WNS has been found.US Fish & Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, "White-Nose Syndrome in bats: Something is killing our bats." http://www.fws.gov/northeast/white_nose.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209135731/http://www.fws.gov/northeast/white_nose.html |date=2008-02-09 }} (accessed April 14, 2009)

The Fish and Wildlife Service has been partnering with the Northeastern Cave Conservancy to track movements of cavers that have visited affected sites in New York.

In 2009, the Service advised closing caves to explorers in 20 states, from the Midwest to New England. This directive was supposed to be extended to 13 southern states. One Virginia scientist stated, "If it gets into caves more to our south, in places like Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia and Alabama, we're going to be talking deaths in the millions." In March 2012, WNS was discovered on some tri-colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus) in Russell Cave in Jackson County, Alabama.

File:Geomyces destructans.gif

The fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans is the primary cause of WNS.{{cite journal | vauthors = Warnecke L, Turner JM, Bollinger TK, Lorch JM, Misra V, Cryan PM, Wibbelt G, Blehert DS, Willis CK | title = Inoculation of bats with European Geomyces destructans supports the novel pathogen hypothesis for the origin of white-nose syndrome | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 | issue = 18 | pages = 6999–7003 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22493237 | pmc = 3344949 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1200374109 | display-authors = 8 | bibcode = 2012PNAS..109.6999W | doi-access = free }}

It preferably grows in the 4–15 °C range (39–59 °F) and will not grow at temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F).{{cite journal | vauthors = Verant ML, Boyles JG, Waldrep W, Wibbelt G, Blehert DS | title = Temperature-dependent growth of Geomyces destructans, the fungus that causes bat white-nose syndrome | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 9 | pages = e46280 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23029462 | pmc = 3460873 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0046280 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...746280V | doi-access = free }} It is cold loving or psychrophilic.

It is phylogenetically related to Geomyces spp., but with a conidial morphology distinct from characterized members of this genus.

Early laboratory research placed the fungus in the genus Geomyces,{{cite journal | vauthors = Blehert DS, Hicks AC, Behr M, Meteyer CU, Berlowski-Zier BM, Buckles EL, Coleman JT, Darling SR, Gargas A, Niver R, Okoniewski JC, Rudd RJ, Stone WB | title = Bat white-nose syndrome: an emerging fungal pathogen? | journal = Science | volume = 323 | issue = 5911 | page = 227 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 18974316 | doi = 10.1126/science.1163874 | s2cid = 23869393 | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1163874 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Lorch JM, Meteyer CU, Behr MJ, Boyles JG, Cryan PM, Hicks AC, Ballmann AE, Coleman JT, Redell DN, Reeder DM, Blehert DS | title = Experimental infection of bats with Geomyces destructans causes white-nose syndrome | journal = Nature | volume = 480 | issue = 7377 | pages = 376–8 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 22031324 | doi = 10.1038/nature10590 | bibcode = 2011Natur.480..376L | s2cid = 4381156 }} but later phylogenic evaluation revealed this organism should be reclassified within Pseudogymnoascus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Minnis AM, Lindner DL | title = Phylogenetic evaluation of Geomyces and allies reveals no close relatives of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, comb. nov., in bat hibernacula of eastern North America | journal = Fungal Biology | volume = 117 | issue = 9 | pages = 638–49 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24012303 | doi = 10.1016/j.funbio.2013.07.001 }}

A 2011 study found that 100% of healthy North American bats infected with the fungus cultured from infected bats exhibit lesions consistent with the disease. Direct microscopy and culture analyses demonstrated that the skin of the WNS-affected bats is colonized by the fungus.

The species has been found on bats in Europe and Asia,{{cite journal | vauthors = Puechmaille SJ, Verdeyroux P, Fuller H, Gouilh MA, Bekaert M, Teeling EC | title = White-nose syndrome fungus (Geomyces destructans) in bat, France | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 290–3 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20113562 | pmc = 2958029 | doi = 10.3201/eid1602.091391 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/16/2/pdfs/09-1391.pdf }}{{cite journal| first = Susan | last = Young | name-list-style = vanc |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/111026/full/news.2011.613.html |title="Culprit behind bat scourge confirmed" Nature | journal = Nature |date=2011-10-26 |access-date=2014-03-15| doi = 10.1038/news.2011.613 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Zukal J, Bandouchova H, Brichta J, Cmokova A, Jaron KS, Kolarik M, Kovacova V, Kubátová A, Nováková A, Orlov O, Pikula J, Presetnik P, Šuba J, Zahradníková A, Martínková N | title = White-nose syndrome without borders: Pseudogymnoascus destructans infection tolerated in Europe and Palearctic Asia but not in North America | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | page = 19829 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26821755 | pmc = 4731777 | doi = 10.1038/srep19829 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...619829Z }} however, no unusual mortality could be assigned to the infections.{{Cite journal|last1=Fritze|first1=Marcus|last2=Puechmaille|first2=Sebastien J. | name-list-style = vanc |date=2018|title=Identifying unusual mortality events in bats: a baseline for bat hibernation monitoring and white-nose syndrome research|journal=Mammal Review|language=en|volume=48|issue=3|pages=224–228|doi=10.1111/mam.12122|s2cid=90460365|issn=1365-2907}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Wibbelt G, Puechmaille SJ, Ohlendorf B, Mühldorfer K, Bosch T, Görföl T, Passior K, Kurth A, Lacremans D, Forget F | title = Skin lesions in European hibernating bats associated with Geomyces destructans, the etiologic agent of white-nose syndrome | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = e74105 | date = 2013-09-04 | pmid = 24023927 | pmc = 3762782 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0074105 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...874105W | doi-access = free }} Genetic studies have shown that the fungus must have been in Europe for a long time and was most likely transported to North America as a novel pathogen.{{cite journal | vauthors = Drees KP, Lorch JM, Puechmaille SJ, Parise KL, Wibbelt G, Hoyt JR, Sun K, Jargalsaikhan A, Dalannast M, Palmer JM, Lindner DL, Marm Kilpatrick A, Pearson T, Keim PS, Blehert DS, Foster JT | title = Phylogenetics of a Fungal Invasion: Origins and Widespread Dispersal of White-Nose Syndrome | journal = mBio | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = e01941–17 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29233897 | pmc = 5727414 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.01941-17 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Leopardi S, Blake D, Puechmaille SJ | title = White-Nose Syndrome fungus introduced from Europe to North America | journal = Current Biology | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = R217–R219 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25784035 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.047 | doi-access = free }}

File:221205-F-KN521-0064.jpg in Tennessee, to contribute to a study by Virginia Tech concerning the species and white-nose syndrome.]]

A laboratory experiment suggests that physical contact is required for one bat to infect another, because bats in mesh cages adjacent to infected bats did not contract the fungus. This implies that the fungus is not airborne, or at least, is not transmitted from bat to bat through the air. The primary way this fungus is spread is through bat-to-bat contact or infected cave-to-bat contact. The role of humans in the spread of the disease is debated. It is likely the fungus was brought to North America by human activities, because no bats normally migrate between Europe and North America, and the fungus was first discovered in New York where there are major trans-Atlantic air and shipping terminals. Geographical translocation of bats by ship and airplane have been documented.{{cite journal | vauthors = Constantine DG | title = Geographic translocation of bats: known and potential problems | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–21 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12533276 | pmc = 2873759 | doi = 10.3201/EID0901.020104 }} Research has shown the fungus can persist on human clothing and thus could be carried between locations by people, but as of 2016 it has not been demonstrated that this has played any role in the spread of the disease.{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/nm/st/en/prog/more/wildlife/white-nose_syndrome.html|title=Bureau Land Management: "How is White-Nose Syndrome Spread?"|access-date=2016-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301104331/http://www.blm.gov/nm/st/en/prog/more/wildlife/white-nose_syndrome.html|archive-date=2016-03-01|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|title = White-Nose Syndrome|url = http://www.blm.gov/nm/st/en/prog/more/wildlife/white-nose_syndrome.html|website = www.blm.gov|date = 2014-11-28|access-date = 2016-02-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160301104331/http://www.blm.gov/nm/st/en/prog/more/wildlife/white-nose_syndrome.html|archive-date = 2016-03-01|url-status = dead}}

The visually most obvious indication of infection is the presence of white fungal growth on the muzzles and wing membranes of affected bats. However, P. destructans may also be present in lower concentrations without leading to obvious visible cues, persisting as a cryptic infection; this appears to be more likely in some species than in others (e.g., the gray bat).{{cite journal|last1=Janicki|first1=Amanda F.|first2=Winifred F.|last2=Frick|first3=A. Marm|last3=Kilpatrick|first4=Katy L.|last4=Parise|first5=Jeffrey T.|last5=Foster|first6=Gary F.|last6=McCracken|title=Efficacy of visual surveys for white-nose syndrome at bat hibernacula|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=7|year=2015|pages=e0133390|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0133390

|pmid=26197236|pmc=4509758|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1033390J|doi-access=free}}

As early as 2011 it was hypothesized that prematurely expending the fat reserves for winter survival may be a cause for death.{{cite web|title=A National Plan for Assisting States, Federal Agencies, and Tribes in Managing White-Nose Syndrome in Bats|url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/sites/default/files/white-nose_syndrome_national_plan_may_2011.pdf|publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service|access-date=10 January 2015|page=21|date=May 2011}} A 2014 study found that while bats can successfully fight off the fungus between mid-October and May, their resistance falls to near zero once they begin to hibernate when the animals shut their metabolism down to save energy. The signs observed with WNS include unusual winter behavior like abnormally frequent or abnormally long arousal from the state of torpor. Each time they rouse, they start using more energy and if this happens too much, they can use up their fat stores and starve. Some bats will even leave their winter shelters in search of absent insects and risk dying of exposure in the cold. Consequently many infected bats don't make it until spring when their immune systems and body temperatures ramp up and insect food sources again emerge.{{cite web |title=New treatment offers hope for bats battling white nose syndrome |url=https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/new-treatment-offers-hope-bats-battling-white-nose-syndrome |website=Science News for Students |date=26 July 2019 |access-date=August 1, 2020}}

Until December 2014 the cause for the abnormal behavior was unclear, as no physiological data linking altered behavior to hypothesized increased energy demands existed.

The Fish and Wildlife Service published a case control study in December 2014: Of 60 little brown bats, 39 bats were randomly assigned to infection by applying conidia to skin of the dorsal surface of both wings and 21 bats remained controls. All were observed for 95 days and euthanized. 32 bats developed WNS (30 mild to moderate and 2 moderate to severe). The remaining seven infected bats were PCR-positive with normal wing histology.

Infected bats with WNS had higher proportions of lean tissue mass to fat tissue mass than uninfected bats in measuring an increase in total body water volume as a percent of body mass. Infected bats used twice as much energy as healthy bats, and starved to death. Direct calculations of energy expenditure failed for most bats, because isotope concentrations were indistinguishable from background. There was also no difference in torpor durations in this experiment; the average torpor duration for infected bats was 9.1 days with an average arousal of 54 min. Average torpor duration for control bats was 8.5 days with an average arousal duration of 55 min.{{cite journal | vauthors = Verant ML, Meteyer CU, Speakman JR, Cryan PM, Lorch JM, Blehert DS | title = White-nose syndrome initiates a cascade of physiologic disturbances in the hibernating bat host | journal = BMC Physiology | volume = 14 | issue = 10 | page = 10 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25487871 | pmc = 4278231 | doi = 10.1186/s12899-014-0010-4 | doi-access = free }} Infected bats suffered respiratory acidosis with an almost 40% higher mean pCO₂ than healthy bats, and potassium concentration was significantly higher.

Hence the following model of infection exists:

Pseudogymnoascus destructans colonizes and eventually invades the wing epidermis. This causes increased energy expenditure, and an elevated blood pCO₂ and bicarbonate called chronic respiratory acidosis, possibly due to diffusion problems. Hyperkalemia (elevated blood potassium) ensues because of an acidosis-induced extracellular shift of potassium. Dying, infected cells could also leak their (intracellular) potassium into the blood. The damaged wing epidermis might stimulate increased frequencies of arousal from torpor, which removes excess CO₂ and normalizes blood pH, at the expense of hydration and fat reserves. With worsening wing damage, the effects are exacerbated by water and electrolyte loss across the wound (hypotonic dehydration), which stimulates more frequent arousals in a positive feedback loop that ultimately leads to death.

File:WNS map 2018.jpg

The disease was first reported in January 2007 in New York caves,{{cite news |title=Bat Deaths in NY, VT. Baffle Experts | last = Hill | first = Michael | name-list-style = vanc |date=30 January 2008|agency=Associated Press |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2008-01-30-bat-deaths_N.htm |access-date=2008-02-14}} although it was retrospectively detected in a photograph taken in early 2006. It spread to other New York caves and into Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut by 2008.{{cite news|title=White Nose Syndrome; Could cave dwelling bat species become extinct in our lifetime?|publisher=Bat Conservation and Management, Inc.|url=http://www.batmanagement.com/wns/wns.html|access-date=2009-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225120748/http://www.batmanagement.com/wns/wns.html|archive-date=2009-02-25|url-status=dead}}{{cite news |title=Bat affliction found in Vermont and Massachusetts caves |date=15 February 2008 |access-date=2008-02-20 |url=http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newyork/ny-bc-ny--batdie-off0215feb15,0,232424.story |work=Newsday}}{{dead link|date=May 2013}} In early 2009, it was confirmed in New Hampshire,http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090223/NEWS02/302239991{{dead link|date=May 2013}} New Jersey, Pennsylvania,{{cite news|title=White-nose syndrome surfaces in Pennsylvania|first=Joe|last=Kosack| name-list-style = vanc |year=2009|url=https://www.espn.com/?storyId=3855422&lang=ES&wjb|access-date=2009-02-05}} Virginia,{{cite web |url=http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/wildlife/bats/white-nose-syndrome/archive/ |title=White-Nose Syndrome Statements Archive |publisher=Dgif.virginia.gov |date=2009-04-02 |access-date=2014-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731193825/http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/wildlife/bats/white-nose-syndrome/archive/ |archive-date=2014-07-31 |url-status=dead }} West Virginia and in March 2010, in Ontario Canada, Maryland,{{cite web|url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/sites/default/files/files/md_wns.pdf |author=Maryland Department of Natural Resources |title= White Nose Syndrome Confirmed In Bats From Western Maryland Cave|date=March 18, 2010|publisher=White-Nose Syndrome |access-date=2014-03-15}} Middle Tennessee, Missouri,{{cite web |url=http://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/outdoor-recreation/caving/white-nose-syndrome-missouri |title=White-Nose Syndrome in Missouri | Missouri Department of Conservation |publisher=Mdc.mo.gov |access-date=2014-03-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106095706/http://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/outdoor-recreation/caving/white-nose-syndrome-missouri |archive-date=2013-01-06 }} and Quebec, Canada.{{cite news|title=White Nose Syndrome Detected In Ontario Bats|author=Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources|url=http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Newsroom/LatestNews/289824.html|access-date=2010-03-19|date=March 19, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324041507/http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Newsroom/LatestNews/289824.html|archive-date=24 March 2010}}{{cite news|title=Bat in Clarksville's Dunbar Cave with deadly fungus may be migrant|first=Chris|last=Smith| name-list-style = vanc |newspaper=The Leaf-Chronicle|url=http://www.theleafchronicle.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2010100324016|access-date=2010-03-24}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} In 2011, the syndrome was confirmed in Ohio,{{cite web|url=http://www.ohiodnr.com/home_page/NewsReleases/tabid/18276/EntryId/2194/White-nose-Syndrome-Detected-in-Ohio.aspx |title=White-nose Syndrome Detected in Ohio |publisher=Ohio DNR |date=2011-03-30 |access-date=2014-03-15}} Indiana,{{cite web |url=http://www.in.gov/portal/news_events/66544.htm |title=Newsroom |publisher=State of Indiana |date=2011-02-01 |access-date=2014-03-15 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924064635/http://www.in.gov/portal/news_events/66544.htm |url-status=dead }} Kentucky,{{cite web|url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/news/white-nose-syndrome-spreads-kentucky |title=WNS spreads in Kentucky |publisher=White-Nose Syndrome |access-date=2014-03-15}} North Carolina, Maine,{{cite web|url=http://www.maine.gov/ifw/wildlife/disease/white_nose_syndrome.htm|title=White Nose Syndrome|website=Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife|access-date=2015-01-10|archive-date=2015-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110213207/http://www.maine.gov/ifw/wildlife/disease/white_nose_syndrome.htm|url-status=dead}} New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.{{cite web|url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/news/early-signs-white-nose-syndrome-spreading-bats |title=Early Signs of White Nose Syndrome Spreading to Bats |publisher=White-Nose Syndrome |access-date=2014-03-15}} In the winter of 2011–2012, Alabama,{{cite web|url=https://alabamabatwg.wordpress.com/category/wns-in-alabama-updates/ |title=WNS in Alabama Updates | Alabama Bat Working Group |date=22 April 2013|author=Tennessee Valley Authority |publisher=Alabamabatwg.wordpress.com |access-date=2014-03-15}} Delaware{{cite web|url=http://www.dnrec.delaware.gov/News/Pages/White-Nose-Syndrome-detected-in-Delaware-bats.aspx |title=White-Nose Syndrome detected in Delaware bats|publisher=DNRec.delaware.gov |access-date=2014-03-15}} and Arkansas{{cite web|url=http://batcon.org/pdfs/whitenose/WNS%20News%20Release%20072913-Final.pdf|title=Fungus that kills bats prompts continued precautions at Arkansas caves|date=28 July 2013|author=Arkansas Game and Fish Commission|access-date=6 March 2014|archive-date=27 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327011541/http://batcon.org/pdfs/whitenose/WNS%20News%20Release%20072913-Final.pdf|url-status=dead}} confirmed the disease in bats and new cases showed up in northeastern Ohio,{{cite news |title=Deadly white-nose syndrome found on bats in Cuyahoga and Geauga County parks |date=2012-02-16 |access-date=2012-02-17 |url=http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2012/02/deadly_white-nose_syndrome_fou_1.html |first=Pat|last=Galbincea | name-list-style = vanc |newspaper=The Plain Dealer}} and Acadia National Park in Maine.{{cite news |title=Bat Disease, White-Nose Syndrome, Confirmed in Acadia National Park: Not Harmful to Humans, but Deadly to Bats |date=20 March 2012|access-date=2012-03-21 |url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/sites/default/files/files/wnsconfirmedmaine_052411.pdf|author=Acadia National Park|publisher=Fish and Wildlife Service}} (PDF linked from [https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/news/bat-disease-white-nose-syndrome-confirmed-maine-not-harmful-humans-deadly-bats White-Nose Syndrome.org]) Confirmed cases appeared in 2013 in Georgia,{{cite news|title=Disease Deadly to Bats Confirmed in Georgia|date=12 March 2013|access-date=2013-03-26|url=http://www.georgiawildlife.com/node/3245|author=Georgia Department of Natural Resources News Release|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322041409/http://www.georgiawildlife.com/node/3245|archive-date=22 March 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}} South Carolina,{{cite news|title=Bat disease white-nose syndrome confirmed in South Carolina|date=2013-03-11|access-date=2013-03-26|url=http://dnr.sc.gov/news/yr2013/march14/march14_batwns.html|author=South Carolina Department of Natural Resources News Release|archive-date=2013-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322022917/http://dnr.sc.gov/news/yr2013/march14/march14_batwns.html|url-status=dead}} Illinois,{{cite news |title=White-Nose Syndrome Confirmed in Illinois Bats|date=2013-02-28 |access-date=2013-03-26 |url=http://www.caves.org/WNS/Illinois%20Detection.pdf|author=Illinois Department of Natural Resources News Release}} and the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island.{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/bat-white-nose-syndrome-confirmed-on-p-e-i-1.1321559 |title=Bat white-nose syndrome confirmed on Prince Edward Island |publisher=CBC News |date=2013-02-27 |access-date=2014-03-15}} In March, 2014, WDNR and USGS staff conducting routine surveillance detected white-nose syndrome in a single mine in Grant County Wisconsin and the USGS National Wildlife Health Center later confirmed the disease.{{cite web|url=http://dnr.wi.gov/news/BreakingNews_Lookup.asp?id=3169|title=Deadly bat disease detected in single Wisconsin site; State joins 23 others in confirming white-nose syndrome|date=10 April 2014|publisher=Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources}} In April, 2014, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources announced that the disease had been found in Alpena County, Mackinac County, and Dickinson County.{{cite news|newspaper=Detroit Free Press| date =11 April 2014| page=1A|title=Detroit Free Press article}} In May, 2014, after retesting, the Myotis velifer specimen from Oklahoma and other swabs and samples from the area tested negative, and Oklahoma and Myotis velifer were removed from the list of WNS suspects.{{cite web|title=Oklahoma removed from list of suspected bat fungus areas|url=http://www.wildlifedepartment.com/media/batfungus.htm|publisher=Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation|access-date=13 May 2014|archive-date=14 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514084423/http://www.wildlifedepartment.com/media/batfungus.htm|url-status=dead}}

As of April 2014, the syndrome had been confirmed in 25 states and 5 Canadian provinces.

The causative fungus has been confirmed in three additional states: Iowa, Minnesota, and Mississippi.{{cite web|url=http://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/about/where-is-it-now |title=Where is it now? |publisher=White-Nose Syndrome |access-date=2015-01-09}}

A little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) was found in Washington state infected with white-nose syndrome in March 2016. Researchers suspect through DNA analysis that the source of infection in this individual originated in the Eastern U.S. This has been the westernmost case discovered in North America thus far.{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/deadly-bat-fungus-washington-state-likely-originated-eastern-us|title=Deadly Bat Fungus in Washington State Likely Originated in Eastern U.S.|website=www.usgs.gov|access-date=2016-09-29}}

A second case of white-nose syndrome was detected in Washington in April 2017. The infected bat was a Yuma myotis (Myotis yumanensis), which was the first time the disease has been found in this species.{{cite web |url=https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/blog/researchers-work-stop-spread-white-nose-syndrome-washington |title=Researchers work to stop the spread of white-nose syndrome in Washington |last=Froschauer| first=Ann | name-list-style = vanc |date=May 11, 2017 |website= white-nose syndrome.org|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=May 12, 2017}}

In March 2017, the fungus was found on bats in six north Texas counties, bringing the number of states with the fungus to 33. Three bat species tested positive.{{cite web|title=Fungus that Causes White-nose Syndrome in Bats Detected in Texas|url=http://tpwd.texas.gov/newsmedia/releases/?req=20170323c|website=Texas Parks and Wildlife|access-date=4 April 2007}}

In April 2018, it was announced that bats in Kansas were documented with white-nose syndrome, making it the first time infected bats were found in Kansas.{{cite web| url=https://www.ksal.com/bat-disease-detected-in-kansas/| title=Bat Disease Detected in Kansas| author=Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism| date=2 April 2018| website=KSAL.com| publisher=Rocking M Media| access-date=2 April 2018}}

In May 2018, it was announced that bats in Manitoba were found to be infected with white-nose syndrome.{{Cite news|url=http://news.gov.mb.ca/news/index.html?item=43983&posted=2018-05-18|title=Province of Manitoba {{!}} News Releases {{!}} White-nose Bat Syndrome Found in Manitoba|work=Province of Manitoba|access-date=2018-05-21|language=en-CA}}

In May 2019, the fungus was found in the home of the largest colony of bats in the world, Bracken Cave, near San Antonio, Texas.{{Cite news|url=http://www.batcon.org/resources/media-education/news-room/press-releases/1209-fungus-that-causes-bat-killing-disease-white-nose-syndrome-is-expanding-in-texas|title=Fungus that causes bat-killing disease White-nose Syndrome is expanding in Texas |publisher=Bat Conservation International|access-date=2019-07-05}}

While field surveys conducted in 2020 have confirmed the presence of the fungus throughout multiple counties in Montana, the first death of an infected bat was confirmed in April 2021.{{cite web |last=ohtadmin |date=2021-04-30 |title=First Montana case of white-nose syndrome detected in Fallon County bat - Fallon County Times |url=https://www.falloncountytimes.com/articles/first-montana-case-of-white-nose-syndrome-detected-in-fallon-county-bat/ |access-date=2022-04-29 |website=Fallon County Times -}}

In early 2023, the fungus had been detected in bat guano near the city of Grand Forks in British Columbia.{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2023/04/03/fungus-that-causes-deadly-white-nose-syndrome-among-bats-detected-in-bc-guano.html|title=Fungus that causes deadly white nose syndrome among bats detected in B.C. guano|agency=The Canadian Press|newspaper=Toronto Star|date=3 April 2023|accessdate=2023-04-04}}

The fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, or a closely related species of fungus, has been found in soil samples from infected caves and suggests that it can be transported from cave to cave by soil, such as that carried by human clothing.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindner DL, Gargas A, Lorch JM, Banik MT, Glaeser J, Kunz TH, Blehert DS | title = DNA-based detection of the fungal pathogen Geomyces destructans in soils from bat hibernacula | journal = Mycologia | volume = 103 | issue = 2 | pages = 241–6 | date = 2011-03-18 | pmid = 20952799 | doi = 10.3852/10-262 | s2cid = 17331158 | url = http://www.mycologia.org/content/103/2/241.full }} Precautionary decontamination methods are being encouraged to inhibit the possible spread of spores by humans. The WNS Decontamination Team, a sub-group of the Disease Management Working Group, published a national decontamination protocol on March 15, 2012. They revised the protocol on June 25, 2012.{{cite web|last=WNS Decontamination Team|title=National White-Nose Syndrome Decontamination Protocol v 06.25.2012|url=http://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/sites/default/files/resource/national_wns_revise_final_6.25.12.pdf}} In May 2015, based upon laboratory tests, a recommendation was issued to increase the temperature of the hot water treatment for submersible gear to {{convert|60|C|F|abbr=on}} for 20 minutes (up from {{convert|50|C|F|abbr=on}}). All other guidance in the existing protocol should be followed.{{cite web|last= Geboy|first= Richard|name-list-style= vanc|title= National Decontamination Protocol Update|publisher= Midwest Regional WNS Coordinator, US Fish & Wildlife Service|url= http://caves.org/WNS/Decon%20Update.pdf|access-date= 2015-11-11|archive-date= 2016-01-23|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160123045335/http://caves.org/WNS/Decon%20Update.pdf|url-status= dead}}

As of 2008, cave management and preservation organizations had begun requesting that cave visitors limit their activities and disinfect clothing and equipment that has been used in possibly infected caves.{{cite web |title=Something is killing our bats: The white-nose syndrome mystery |publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service |url=http://www.fws.gov/northeast/white_nose.html |access-date=2008-02-14 |archive-date=2008-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209135731/http://www.fws.gov/northeast/white_nose.html |url-status=dead }} The current protocol goes further, and indicates that in many cases it is inappropriate to reuse even disinfected gear, and that new gear should be used.{{r|auto|p=3}}

In some cases, access to caves is being closed entirely.{{cite news | last = Munger | first = Edward | name-list-style = vanc |title=Group asking cavers to keep out |url=http://www.dailygazette.com/news/2008/feb/14/0214_caves/ |work=Daily Gazette |date=2008-02-14 |access-date=2008-02-14}} According to New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Commissioner Basil Seggos, "Research ... demonstrates that white-nose syndrome makes bats highly susceptible to disturbances. Even a single, seemingly quiet visit can kill bats that would otherwise survive the winter. If you see hibernating bats, assume you are doing harm and leave immediately." When hibernating bats are disturbed, it raises their body temperatures, depleting fat reserves.{{cite web|title=DEC Reminds the Public to Avoid Seasonal Caves and Mines to Protect Bat Populations|url=http://www.dec.ny.gov/press/108239.html|publisher=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation|access-date=1 November 2016|date=28 December 2016|archive-date=4 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104014624/http://www.dec.ny.gov/press/108239.html|url-status=dead}}

A 2019 study found that bats treated with Pseudomonas fluorescens, a probiotic bacterium previously used in chytridiomycosis treatments, were five times more likely to survive post-hibernation.{{cite journal |last1=Hoyt |first1=Joseph R. |last2=Langwig |first2=Kate E. |last3=White |first3=J. Paul |last4=Kaarakka |first4=Heather M. |last5=Redell |first5=Jennifer A. |last6=Parise |first6=Katy L. |last7=Frick |first7=Winifred F. |last8=Foster |first8=Jeffrey T. |last9=Kilpatrick |first9=A. Marm |title=Field trial of a probiotic bacteria to protect bats from white-nose syndrome. |journal=Scientific Reports |date=24 June 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=9158 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-45453-z|pmid=31235813 |pmc=6591354 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9158H |doi-access=free }}

• Anthropocene
• Chytridiomycosis
• Decline in amphibian populations
• Holocene extinction

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Commons category|White-Nose Syndrome}}

• [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/terrestrial/pathogens-and-diseases/white-nose-syndrome Species Profile - White-Nose Syndrome], National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for White-Nose Syndrome.
• [https://www.whitenosesyndrome.org/ White-Nose Syndrome Response Team]
• [http://www.wildthingssanctuary.org/bats--white-nose-syndrome.html White Nose Syndrome: The mystery fungus killing our bats], a comprehensive article from [http://www.wildthingssanctuary.org Wild Things Sanctuary]
• [https://www.usgs.gov/ecosystems/invasive-species-program/science/white-nose-syndrome?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects Invasive Species Program: White-Nose Syndrome], United States Geological Survey
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20091103234442/http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/index.php?option=com_jcalpro&Itemid=54&extmode=view&extid=259 Testimony] before the US House Committee on Natural Resources on June 4, 2009
• [http://www.caves.org/WNS/WNS%20Info.htm WNS News] from the National Speleological Society
• [http://www.batcon.org/our-work/regions/usa-canada/white-nose-syndrome White-nose Syndrome: A Deadly Disease], Bat Conservation International

{{DEFAULTSORT:White Nose Syndrome}}

Category:Animal fungal diseases

Category:Cave organisms

Category:Bat diseases

Category:Population ecology

Category:Syndromes in mammals

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