zhonghua minzu

{{See also|Legacy of the Qing dynasty|Names of the Qing dynasty|History of the Republic of China}}

An older proto-nationalist term throughout Chinese history would be Huaxia, but the immediate roots of the Zhonghua minzu lie in the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today Northeast China.{{Cite book|title = Culture, Music Education, and the Chinese Dream in Mainland China|author = Wai-Chung Ho|publisher = Springer Nature Singapore|year = 2018|isbn = 9789811075339|page = 38}} The Qing Emperors sought to portray themselves as ideal Confucian rulers for the Han Chinese, Bogda Khans for the Mongols, and Chakravartin kings for Tibetan Buddhists.{{Cite book|title = China's Challenges and International Order Transition|author = Huiyun Feng|publisher = University of Michigan Press|year = 2020|isbn = 9780472131761|page = 151}}

File:Chengde summer palace writings.jpg. On the sign hanging over the gate there is written the letters used in the Qing Dynasty. From the left: Mongolian script, Chagatai Arabic script, Chinese, Tibetan, and Manchurian.Chagatai is the predecessor of Uyghur These five languages are collectively referred to as "Chinese languages".]]

Dulimbai gurun ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ}}) is the Manchu name for China. It has the same meaning as the Chinese name {{zhp|p=Zhongguo|c=中國|l=Middle kingdom}}.[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117 Hauer 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804050912/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117 |date=4 August 2020 }}, p. 117.[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80 Dvořák 1895] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010302/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80 |date=23 August 2020 }}, p. 80.[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102 Wu 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010303/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102 |date=23 August 2020 }}, p. 102. The Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as Dulimbai Gurun in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state, including present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of China, using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the 'Chinese language' (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term Zhongguo zhi ren ({{lang|zh|中國之人}}; {{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ {{zwj}}ᡳ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ}} Dulimbai gurun-i niyalma 'Chinese people') referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Gang |date=January 2006 |title=Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |url=https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |s2cid-access=free |journal=Modern China |language=en |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=3–30 |doi=10.1177/0097700405282349 |issn=0097-7004 |jstor=20062627 |s2cid=144587815 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |archive-date= Mar 25, 2014 }}

When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into China (Dulimbai gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203233227/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA77 |date=3 December 2016 }}, p. 77.[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA83 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010303/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA83 |date=23 August 2020 }}, p. 83.[https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA503 Elliott 2001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518013253/https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA503 |date=18 May 2016 }}, p. 503. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han like the Mongols and Tibetans, together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase {{zhp|p=Zhongwai yijia|c=中外一家}} or {{zhp|p=neiwai yijia|c=內外一家|l=interior and exterior as one family}}, to convey the idea of a unification of the different peoples.[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203233227/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA77 |date=3 December 2016 }}, pp. 76–77. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the central kingdom (Dulimbai gurun)".[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA205 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430205436/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA205 |date=30 April 2016 }}, p. 205.[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&pg=PA205 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010313/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&pg=PA205 |date=23 August 2020 }}, p. 205.[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010325/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |date=23 August 2020 }}, p. 44.[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&pg=PA44 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823010326/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&pg=PA44 |date=23 August 2020 }}, p. 44. In the Manchu official Tulisen's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut Mongol leader Ayuka Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA218 Perdue 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721224450/https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA218 |date=21 July 2020 }}, p. 218.

Before the rise of nationalism people were generally loyal to the city-state, the feudal fief and its lord or, in the case of China, to a dynastic state. While Qing rulers adopted the Han Chinese imperial model and considered their state as Zhongguo ({{Lang-zh|t=中國|p=Zhōngguó|w=Chung1-kuo2}}, the term for China in Standard Chinese), and the name "China" was commonly used in international communications and treaties such as the Treaty of Nanking, some Han nationalists such as Sun Yat-sen initially described the Manchus as "foreign invaders" to be expelled, and planned to establish a Han nation-state modelled closely after Germany and Japan. Fearing that this restrictive view of the ethnic nation-state would result in the loss of large parts of imperial territory, Chinese nationalists discarded this concept. The abdication of the Qing emperor inevitably led to controversy about the status of territories in Tibet and Mongolia. While the emperor formally bequeathed all the Qing territories to the new republic, it was the position of Mongols and Tibetans that their allegiance had been to the Qing monarch; with the abdication of the Qing, they owed no allegiance to the new Chinese state. This was rejected by the Republic of China and subsequently the People's Republic of China.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

File:Liang qichao.jpg, who put forward the concept of "Zhonghua Minzu (the Chinese nation)" ]]

This development in Chinese thinking was mirrored in the expansion of the meaning of the term Zhonghua minzu. Originally coined by the late Qing philologist Liang Qichao, Zhonghua minzu initially referred only to the Han Chinese. It was then expanded to include the Five Races Under One Union, based on the ethnic categories of the Qing.{{Cite book|title = Academic Nations in China and Japan|author = Margaret Sleeboom|publisher = Taylor & Francis|year = 2004|isbn = 9781134376148|page = 52}}{{Cite book|title = Afterlives of Chinese Communism|author = Christian P. Sorace|publisher = ANU Press|year = 2019|isbn = 9781760462499|page = 17}}

The concept of Zhonghua minzu was first publicly espoused by President Yuan Shikai in 1912, shortly after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the founding of the Republic of China. Facing the imminent independence of Outer Mongolia from China, Yuan Shikai stated, "Outer Mongolia is part of Zhonghua minzu [the Chinese nation] and has been of one family for centuries" ({{zhi|c=外蒙同為中華民族，數百年來儼如一家}}).{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Sun Yat-sen further elaborated the concept, as expressed, for example, in a 1920 speech:{{Cite web |script-title=zh:修改党章的说明—— 在上海中国国民党本部会议的演说|trans-title=Explanation of the Revision of the Party Constitution - speech at the meeting of the Chinese Kuomintang headquarters in Shanghai|url=https://www.sunyat-sen.org/index.php/portal/article/index.html?id=24352&cid=19|date=4 November 2020 |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=The Museum of Dr. Sun Yat-sen |language=zh}}

{{blockquote|{{lang|zh|有人說，清室推翻以後，民族主義可以不要。這話實在錯了。…現在說五族共和，我們國內何止五族呢？我的意思，應該把我們中國所有各民族融化成一個中華民族。…並且要把中華民族造成很文明的民族，然後民族主義乃為完了。}}
Some people say, after the overthrow of the Qing, we will have no further need of nationalism. Those words are certainly wrong... At the present we speak of unifying the 'five nationalities', yet surely our country has far more than five nationalities? My stand is that we should unite all the peoples of China into one Chinese nation (Zhonghua minzu) ...furthermore, develop that nation into an advanced, civilized nation; only then will nationalism be finished.|sign=|source=}}

After the founding of the PRC, the concept of Zhonghua minzu became influenced by Soviet nationalities policy. Officially, the PRC is a unitary state composed of 56 ethnic groups, of which the Han are by far the largest. The concept of Zhonghua minzu is seen as an all-encompassing category consisting of people within the borders of the PRC.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

This term has continued to be invoked and remains a powerful concept in China into the 21st century. In mainland China, it continues to hold use as the leaders of China need to unify into one political entity a highly diverse set of ethnic and social groups as well as to mobilize the support of overseas Chinese in developing China.{{citation needed|reason=How would this enhance the support of the overseas Chinese since the vast majority of them were Han. Wouldn't the decoupling of Han identity from Chineseness only serve to disenfranchise them?|date=July 2015}} The term is included in article 22 of the Regulations on United Front Work of the Chinese Communist Party: "...promote national unity and progress, and enhance the identification of the masses of all ethnic groups with the great motherland, the Chinese nation, Chinese culture, the Communist Party of China, and socialism with Chinese characteristics."{{Cite web |date=2021-01-05 |script-title=zh:中共中央印发《中国共产党统一战线工作条例》(Regulations on United Front Work of the Communist Party of China) |url=http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2021-01/05/content_5577289.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312063713/http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2021-01/05/content_5577289.htm |archive-date=2023-03-12 |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=www gov.cn |language=zh}} Zhonghua minzu is also one of the five identifications.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

In Taiwan. it has been invoked by President Ma as a unifying concept that includes the people of both Taiwan and mainland China without a possible interpretation that Taiwan is part the People's Republic of China, whereas terms such as "Chinese people" can be, given that the PRC is commonly known as "China".

{{Nationalism sidebar |all}}

The adoption of the Zhonghua minzu concept may give rise to the reinterpretation of Chinese history. For example, the Qing dynasty was originally sometimes characterized as a conquest dynasty or non-Han regime. Following the adoption of the Zhonghua minzu ideology, which regards the Manchus as a member of the Zhonghua minzu, dynasties founded by ethnic minorities are no longer stigmatized.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

The concept of Zhonghua minzu nevertheless also leads to the reassessment of the role of many traditional hero figures. Heroes such as Yue Fei and Zheng Chenggong, who were originally often considered to have fought for China against barbarian incursions, have been re-characterized by some as minzu yingxiong ('ethnic heroes') who fought not against barbarians but against other members of the Zhonghua minzu—the Jurchens and Manchus respectively. At the same time, China exemplified heroes such as Genghis Khan, who became a national hero as a member of the Zhonghua minzu.

The concept of the Zhonghua minzu has sometimes resulted in friction with neighboring countries such as Mongolia, North Korea and South Korea, who claim regional historical peoples and states. For instance, Mongolia has questioned the concept of Genghis Khan as a "national hero" during the Republic of China Period. Since the collapse of socialism, Mongolia has clearly positioned Genghis Khan as the father of the Mongolian nation.{{cite web |title=Modern Mongolia: Reclaiming Genghis Khan |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/mongolia/section2a.html |publisher=Penn Museum |access-date=2019-09-24}} Some Chinese scholars rejections of that position involve tactics such as pointing out that more ethnic Mongols live within China than Mongolia and that the modern-day state of Mongolia acquired its independence from the Republic of China which claimed the legal right to inherit all Qing territories, including Mongolia, through the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor.{{Cite book |last1=Esherick |first1=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reKxAAAAQBAJ&q=complete+territories+of+manchu,+han,+mongol,+hui,+tibetan&pg=PA245 |title=Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World |last2=Kayali |first2=Hasan |last3=Van Young |first3=Eric |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-742-57815-9 |page=245 |via=Google Books}}{{Cite book |last=Zhai |first=Zhiyong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziEwDwAAQBAJ&q=仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土為一大中華民國&pg=PA190 |publisher=City University of HK Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-9-629-37321-4 |page=190 |script-title=zh:憲法何以中國 |language=zh}}{{Cite book |last=Gao |first=Quanxi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P46rDAAAQBAJ&q=仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土為一大中華民國&pg=PA273 |publisher=City University of Hong Kong Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-9-629-37291-0 |page=273 |script-title=zh:政治憲法與未來憲制 |via=Google Books |language=zh}} There is also controversy between China and the Korean Peninsula regarding the historical status of Goguryeo.{{cite web |first1=Gi-Wook |last1=Shin |first2=Haley |last2=Gordon |first3=Hannah June |last3=Kim |title=South Koreans Are Rethinking What China Means to Their Nation |url=https://fsi.stanford.edu/news/south-koreans-are-rethinking-what-china-means-their-nation |date= February 8, 2022 |publisher=The Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies |access-date=February 8, 2022}}

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{{Reflist

|refs =

{{Cite book |last1=Landis |first1=Dan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EFihegRpmkC&pg=PA182 |title=Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives |last2=Albert |first2=Rosita D. |date=14 February 2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1461404477 |pages=182– |access-date=13 October 2016}}

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{{Cite book |last1=Bloxham |first1=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCHMFHQRNtYC&pg=PR150 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk |date=15 April 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-161361-6 |pages=150– |access-date=13 October 2016}}

{{Cite web |title=nationalism;Identification of state and people |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/405644/nationalism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315150936/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/405644/nationalism |archive-date=15 March 2010 |access-date=9 March 2010}}

Empire to nation: historical perspectives on the making of the modern world, by Joseph Esherick, Hasan Kayalı, Eric Van Young, p. 232

[http://www.cefc.com.hk/uk/pc/articles/art_ligne.php?num_art_ligne=1807 French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (CEFC)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321222121/http://www.cefc.com.hk/uk/pc/articles/art_ligne.php?num_art_ligne=1807 |date=21 March 2008 }}. (cf. by Tongmenghui adherent)

See, e.g. Ma Ying-jeou, [http://www.president.gov.tw/2_special/2008_0520p/speech.html President of Republic of China inauguration speech] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602083756/http://www.president.gov.tw/2_special/2008_0520p/speech.html |date=2 June 2008 }}, 20 May 2008: (Section 2, Paragraph 8)

{{Cite web |title=What makes a national hero? |url=http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/2003/0109/fe20-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610211125/http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/2003/0109/fe20-1.html |archive-date=10 June 2008 |access-date=25 May 2008}}

[http://www.smhric.org/E_Bulag_2.pdf The Chinese Cult of Chinggis Khan: Genealogical Nationalism and Problems of National and Cultural Integrity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528003549/http://www.smhric.org/E_Bulag_2.pdf |date=28 May 2008 }}, City University of New York.

}}

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{{Refend}}

• [http://hnn.us/articles/7077.html The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided] Zhonghua minzu and the Sino-Korean controversy over the 'ownership' of ancient Koguryo.
• [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/xiaoweiqingessay.htm Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106091854/http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/xiaoweiqingessay.htm |date=6 January 2008 }}

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