:Compulsory military training in New Zealand

Calls for the military training of settlers began in the colony's earliest days.Editorial, New Zealand Gazette and Wellington Spectator, Volume 14, Issue 70, 14 August 1841, p. 2 The concern was that settlers were not used to firearms, which could result in their inability to defend themselves if the need arose. Debate continued until 1843, when a militia was formed in Wellington, without the Governor's authorisation,Port Nicholson, Nelson Examiner and New Zealand Chronicle, Volume II, 2 September 1843, Page 311. which prompted the Governor to send troops to Wellington to disperse the militia.

There was further debate, and in March 1845, the Militia Ordinance 1845 was passed by the legislature and enabled the Governor to form a militia when required. Training would be implemented only when the militia was needed. The ordinance required:

Every man except as hereinafter excepted, between the ages of (18) years and (60) years, being a British subject, and not an aboriginal native, who shall reside within the colony, shall be liable to serve in such militia....

the Police Magistrate shall have power, after hearing such objections, to strike out of the said list the names of all persons who shall not be liable to serve as militiamen, and also of such as are afflicted by lunacy or unsoundness of mind, or deafness, blindness, lameness, or by any other disorder that may render them unfit for active service in any such militia...".{{cite web|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/document/35684/militia-ordinance-1845 |title=Militia Ordinance 1845 – Conscription, conscientious objection and pacifism – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |publisher=Teara.govt.nz |date=12 November 2014 |access-date=23 April 2015}}

The first significant use of this legislation was at New Plymouth in 1858, when 400 residents were called up.Gazette, Taranaki Herald, Volume VI, Issue 289, 13 February 1858, p. 1 On 28 May 1858, the Militia Act 1858 replaced the ordinance, but retained the same provisions as the above clauses. Monetary penalties were introduced for not complying with the call-up.{{cite web|url=http://rnza.co.nz/artillery_heritage/legislation/1858_militia_act.htm |title=1858 Militia Act > Legislation > Artillery Heritage > New Zealand Artillery : Southern Gunners : Live Firing |publisher=Rnza.co.nz |access-date=23 April 2015}}

As a result of the land wars commencing in the early 1860s, the Act was replaced in 1865 by the Militia Act 1865. The new Act changed the requirement to register by reducing the maximum age from 60 to 55 and by including all males who had resided in New Zealand for more than three months. The list of exempted professions was expanded, with the militia being classified into three levels of priority, ranging from unmarried men and widowers without children, between eighteen and forty years of age; widowers with children, and married men, between 18 and 4/ years of age, unmarried men who could prove that female relatives were dependent upon them for their support; and men between 40 and 55 years of age. Penalties for failing to comply with the Act became considerably tougher, with reference to penalties under Imperial legislation.{{cite news | title=Militia Act 1865 | work=The New Zealand Herald | volume=III | issue=741 | date=30 March 1866 | page=6}}

The 1865 Act was repealed and replaced by the Militia Act 1870. The exempted professions were slightly amended, the starting age was lowered from 18 to 17 and the classifications for levels of priority changed to solely age groups: 17 to 30 years, 30 to 40 years and 40 to 55 years. Penalties in the Act remained mainly fines.{{cite web|url=http://www.nzlii.org/cgi-bin/download.cgi/nz/legis/hist_act/ma187033a34v1870n87223 |title=Download Menu |publisher=Nzlii.org |access-date=23 April 2015}}

With the Russian scare of the 1880s, the Militia Act was repealed, and the Defence Act 1886 set up a permanent military force. The changes relating to the militia expanded those liable for service to include Maori, slightly revised the exempted professions and revised the priority classifications by making those married and aged either 17 to 30 or 30 to 40 one step lower priority than those who were single.{{cite web|url=http://www.nzlii.org/cgi-bin/download.cgi/nz/legis/hist_act/da188650v1886n17133 |title=Download Menu |publisher=Nzlii.org |access-date=23 April 2015}}

In the late 1880s, people such as Lord Wolseley in England and reported in New Zealand, began to make calls for the universal compulsory military training of young men.Lord Wolseley on Conscription, Evening Post| volume=XXXVII| issue=90, 16 April 1889, Page 4 Switzerland was held up as an example of the success of such a system.The Swiss army, Otago Daily Times| issue=8705, 18 January 1890, Page 6 Debate quietened down until the Second Boer War, when the issue again began to be raised in the press.Conscription, Star| issue=6842, 9 July 1900, Page 2 In 1903 to 1904, a Royal Commission considered New Zealand's defence needs and concluded that all able-bodied males should be trained in the use of arms.Compulsory military training, Auckland Star| volume=XXXV| issue=128, 30 May 1904, Page 4

In 1905, the Australasian National Defence League was formed in Australia, with the intent to introduce universal compulsory military training for youths and men on the Swiss system. The proposal differed from the earlier militia in that training was to be organised permanently rather than just when required. The Australian move was widely reported in New Zealand at the time.Volunteer and Defence Notes, Auckland Star| volume=XXXVI| issue=255, 25 October 1905, Page 10 In 1906, the National Defence of New Zealand organisation was set up with similar objectives. The organisation advocated the compulsory training of all boys and youths up to the age of 21.National Defence League, Auckland Star| volume=XXXVII| issue=203, 25 August 1906, Page 6 By 1907, Australia had begun to move towards compulsory military training despite opposition from trade unions, socialist parties and others.The Militia, Wanganui Herald| volume=XXXXI| issue=12287, 3 October 1907, Page 5Trades Union Congress, Star | issue=9028, 7 September 1907, Page 7Famous Labour leader, Auckland Star| volume=XXXVIII| issue=305, 23 December 1907, Page 5 Legislation was introduced into the Australian Parliament in September 1908.A Defence Bill, Press| volume=LXIV| issue=13235, 1 October 1908, Page 7 During the New Zealand 1908 election campaign, Prime Minister Sir Joseph Ward stated that he was against forcing compulsory military training on the populace.Government Policy Speech, Taranaki Daily News| volume=LI| issue=255, 21 October 1908, Page 3

Ward appears to have changed his mind because in April 1909, he announced that the government intended to introduce compulsory military training for youths up to 21 years old.{{cite news |date=3 April 1909 |title=New Zealand's Defence |work=Taranaki Daily News |volume=LII |issue=59 |page=2 }} There was some sporadic opposition to the idea, but that was very definitely a minority view.{{cite news|title=Universal training|work=New Zealand Herald| volume=XLVI| issue=14035 |date=15 April 1909| page=6}} In Wellington, there was quite pronounced opposition from socialists.{{cite news|title=Mostly uproar. Rowdy meeting in the town hall|work=Evening Post| volume=LXXVII| issue=113|date=14 May 1909| page=3}} The Society of Friends raised the issue of conscientious objectors with Ward.{{cite news |title=Defence Bill – Conscientious objection to service. Deputation to the Premier|work=Evening Post| volume=LXXVIII| issue=142 |date=13 December 1909 |page=8}}

The Defence Act 1909, Section 35, brought in a general training requirement for males 12 to 14 years old (Junior Cadets), 14 to 18 (Senior Cadets), 18 to 21 (General Training Section), and 21 to 30 (the Reserve). There was exemption for religious conscientious objectors under Section 92 of the Act but only subject to performing non-combatant duties within the military. Failure to comply with the Act could result in fines and potentially imprisonment for those who did not pay them. The Act also introduced a range of new offences, a number of which were aimed at the behaviour of those being trained.[http://www.nzlii.org/cgi-bin/download.cgi/nz/legis/hist_act/da19099ev1909n28149 Defence Act 1909] The Defence Amendment Act 1912 repealed Section 35 (a) and thereby removed the requirement for those aged up to 14 years old to be trained.

There continued to be mixed opposition to the Act, such as Methodists seeking a broader conscientious objection clause and the Tinsmiths and Sheetmetal Workers Union seeking removal of the compulsory requirements.{{cite news |title=Discussion at Methodist Conference, Press| volume=LXVIII| issue=14299|date=9 March 1912| page=6}} Anti-militarists, such as Reginald Williams of the Passive Resisters Union, and the National Peace Council also spoke out against compulsory training.{{cite news |title=The anti-militarists |work=New Zealand Herald| volume=LI| issue=15632|date=11 June 1914 |page=9}} They were all very much in the minority of public opinion since conscientious objectors were generally perceived as shirkers.{{cite news | title=Shirkers and anti-defenders | work=The Evening Post | volume=LXXXV | issue=149 | date=25 June 1913 | page=6}}{{cite book | first=Steven | last=Loveridge | title=Calls to Arms: New Zealand Society and Commitment to the Great War | location=Wellington | publisher=Victoria University Press | year=2014 |pages=138–152}} Political opposition to the measures came from the socialists and Federation of Labour.

File:Conscription Poster (14644744689).jpg

Public opinion had tended to harden against conscientious objectors as World War I approached, as the derisive term "conchies" emerged.{{Cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/opinion/91498066/calling-sbw-a-conchie-is-to-belittle-world-war-horrors-yet-there-are-parallels|title=Calling SBW a 'conchie' is to belittle World War horrors, yet there are parallels|website=Stuff|date=12 April 2017 |access-date=2017-04-12}} Alternative service suggested by the government was generally rejected by the public in favour of punishment and imprisonment.Parliament, Evening Post| volume=LXXXVIII| issue=68, 17 September 1914, Page 8

In 1915 Britain began to move towards conscription,Hint of conscription, Evening Post| volume=LXXXIX| issue=03, 5 January 1915, Page 7 but New Zealand thought the need unlikely.Will conscription come?, Free Lance| volume=XV| issue=758, 9 January 1915, Page 8 By early 1916, Great Britain had introduced conscription, and debate in New Zealand papers was generally overwhelmingly in favour of following suit. Those opposing it were considered unpatriotic and shirkers by the general public.{{Cite web|url=http://www.aucklandmuseum.com/collections-research/collections/topics/signing-up-the-shirkers-conscription-in-the-first|title=Signing up the shirkers: Conscription in the First World War|website=Auckland Museum}} However, it is hard to tell what public opinion truly was, as sedition charges were laid against those who expressed a contrary view{{Cite web|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/future-prime-minister-peter-fraser-charged-with-sedition|title=Future PM Fraser charged with sedition {{!}} NZHistory, New Zealand history online|website=www.nzhistory.net.nz|access-date=2016-10-29}}{{Cite web |last=Littlewood |first=David |date=2025 |title=Men & Marbles: Christian Pacifism’s Forgotten Father |url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2025/men-marbles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250501050322/https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2025/men-marbles |archive-date=1 May 2025 |access-date=7 May 2025 |website=Auckland War Memorial Museum}} and deserters and their employers{{cite news|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/WT19171126.2.24|title=ENGAGING A DESERTER (Waikato Times, 1917-11-26)|website=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz|publisher=National Library of New Zealand|access-date=2016-10-29}} were pursued{{cite news|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/WAIKIN19170927.2.8|title=THE LAW'S LONG ARM (Waikato Independent, 1917-09-27)|website=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz|publisher=National Library of New Zealand|access-date=2016-10-29}}{{cite news|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/TS19180612.2.36|title=ELEVEN DESERTERS. (Star, 1918-06-12)|website=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz|publisher=National Library of New Zealand|access-date=2016-10-29}} and given harsh punishments.{{cite news|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/AG19171206.2.9.1|title=BREACH OF WAR REGULATIONS. (Ashburton Guardian, 1917-12-06)|website=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz|publisher=National Library of New Zealand|access-date=2016-10-29}}{{cite news|url= https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/CHP19171103.2.58?|title=SOLDIERS SENTENCED. (Press, 1917-11-03)|website=paperspast.natlib.govt.nz|publisher=National Library of New Zealand|access-date=2016-10-29}} That attitude was reflected with the introduction of conscription in 1916 in the Military Service Act 1916, which from 16 September 1916 imposed a liability on all men from the 20th birthday up to the day before the 46th birthday to be entered in a ballot for military call-up.'Military Service Act 1916', URL: http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/media/photo/military-service-act-1916, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 29 July 2014

The only grounds for conscientious objection were:

That he was on the fourth day of August, nineteen hundred and fourteen, and has since continuously been a member of a religious body the tenets and doctrines of which religious body declare the bearing of arms and the performance of any combatant service to be contrary to Divine revelation, and also that according to his own conscientious religious belief the bearing of arms and the performance of any combatant service is unlawful by reason of being contrary to Divine revelation.[http://www.nzlii.org/cgi-bin/download.cgi/nz/legis/hist_act/msa19167gv1916n8266 Section 18(e)]

That was a considerable contraction of the exemption under the Defence Amendment Act 1912, which had allowed under Section 65(2):

On the application of any person a Magistrate may grant to the applicant a certificate of exemption from military training and service if the Magistrate is satisfied that the applicant objects in good faith to such training and service on the ground that it is contrary to his religious belief.

Only Christadelphians, Seventh-day Adventists and Quakers were recognised as conscientious objectors under the 1916 legislation. The combined number of males within those religions was only about 1,200.1911 Census figures Only 20 to 30 of them were exempted military service.The Home Front Vol 1, Nancy Taylor, New Zealand Government Print, 1986, page 244, {{ISBN|0 477 01259 0}}

The only political opposition to conscription in Parliament came from five members of parliament and trade unions.Anti-militarists meeting, Evening Post| volume=XCI| issue=131, 3 June 1916, Page 7 Five Labour Party members (Fraser, Semple, Armstrong, O'Brien, and Webb) were imprisoned for their opposition to conscription.

Of the 124,211 New Zealand men who served during World War I, 91,941 were volunteers and 32,270 were conscripts.New Zealand Official Statistics Yearbook 1919

File:Waikeria Prison for WW1 objectors, c.1923 (27132110972).jpg

The numbers of prosecutions for breaches relating to compulsory military training and military service were 28 in 1911, 3,187 in 1912, 7,030 in 1913, 6,321 in 1914, 3,136 in 1915, 2,478 in 1916, 2,342 in 1917 and 1,501 in 1918.{{cite web|url=http://www3.stats.govt.nz/New_Zealand_Official_Yearbooks/1919/NZOYB_1919.html#idsect1_1_95417 |title=The New Zealand Official Year-book 1919 |publisher=Stats.govt.nz |access-date=23 April 2015}} In addition to prosecutions under the Act, some local authorities implemented by-laws to prohibit the distribution of anti-compulsory military training leaflets.

Anti-militarist, Press| volume=LXVIII| issue=14279, 15 February 1912, Page 2

The compulsory military training provisions of the Defence Act were placed in abeyance in 1930 because of the Great Depression. From July 1931, voluntary training was inaugurated.{{cite web |url=http://www3.stats.govt.nz/New_Zealand_Official_Yearbooks/1932/NZOYB_1932.html#idchapter_1_84255 |title=THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1932 |publisher=Stats.govt.nz |access-date=23 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121133449/http://www3.stats.govt.nz/New_Zealand_Official_Yearbooks/1932/NZOYB_1932.html#idchapter_1_84255 |archive-date=21 January 2015 |df=dmy-all}} During that period, high school students were subjected to a few periods each week of military training.

In May 1939, a voluntary military reserve was established in response to the looming crises in Europe.{{cite web|url=http://www3.stats.govt.nz/New_Zealand_Official_Yearbooks/1940/NZOYB_%201940.html#idchapter_1_76581 |title=THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1940 |publisher=Stats.govt.nz |access-date=23 April 2015}}

During World War II, difficulties in filling the Second and Third Echelons for overseas service in 1939 and 1940 and the Allied disasters of May 1940 led the government to reintroduce conscription reluctantly in June 1940 by the National Service Emergency Regulations on 18 June, made under the Defence Act and the Emergency Regulations Amendment Act of 31 May. Men aged between 18 and 46 again became liable to be called up by ballot. Volunteering for Army service ceased from 22 July 1940 although entry to the Navy and Air Force remained voluntary. From January 1942, workers could be manpowered, or directed to essential industries.{{sfn|McGibbon|2000|pp=118–120}}

Four members of the cabinet, including Prime Minister Peter Fraser, had been imprisoned for anti-conscription activities in World War I, the Labour Party was traditionally opposed to it, and some members still demanded conscription of wealth before men.

Conscientious objection was allowed under the legislation if the applicant could prove to the satisfaction of the Appeal Board that he had objected on conscientious grounds before the outbreak of war. Only 200 cases were approved, with 800 being imprisoned for failing to comply with the regulations. A total of 194,000 men served in the armed forces during the war.

On 25 May 1949, Prime Minister Peter Fraser announced that a referendum would be held on the future of CMT. The results on 3 August 1949 strongly approved reintroduction of CMT, with 77.9% in favour and a turnout of 63.5%.Nohlen, D, Grotz, F & Hartmann, C (2001) Elections in Asia: A data handbook| volume=II, p. 722 {{ISBN|0-19-924959-8}}

Under the Military Training Act 1949, which went into effect in 1950, all males became liable for military service upon reaching 18 years of age. They were required to register with the Department of Labour and Employment, and apart from those exempted for medical, compassionate or conscientious objection reasons, they had to undergo 14 weeks of intensive full-time training, three years of part-time service and six years in the Reserve. All had the option of serving with the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army or the Royal New Zealand Air Force. A total of 63,033 men were trained before the Military Training Act was replaced by the Labour Party government's National Service Registration Act 1958 early that year.

In March 1961, a National Party government, under Keith Holyoake, ended the registration of 18-year-olds for national service. A new act, the National Military Service Act 1961, was introduced requiring all males to register on their 20th birthday with the Department of Labour. Ballots based on dates of birth were conducted to decide who would undertake compulsory service. Those selected were required to complete three months initial full-time training, followed by an annual commitment of three weeks part-time training for three years.

The issue of compulsory military training became a point of debate in the 1960s as New Zealand contributed a combat force to the Vietnam War. Unlike Australia or the United States which sent conscripts, New Zealand only sent full-time professional regular force soldiers but anti-war protests also included calls to abolish CMT and the Organisation to Halt Military Service (OHMS, a pun on both resistance and "On Her Majesty's Service") mounted a campaign of civil disobedience and lobbying. Members refused to do military service or deserted military camps. One of the deserters Geoff Woolford was jailed.{{Cite web |date=23 November 2022 |title=50th Anniversary Of End Of Compulsory Military Training Remembered |url=https://auckland.scoop.co.nz/2022/11/50th-anniversary-of-end-of-compulsory-military-training-remembered/ |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=Scoop.co.nz |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Derby |first=Mark |date=2012 |title=Conscription, conscientious objection and pacifism - Conscientious objection |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/conscription-conscientious-objection-and-pacifism/page-2 |access-date=24 October 2023 |website=Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand}} In 1972 a newly-elected Labour government, led by Norman Kirk, ended National Service.

Since 1972 there has been no conscription. There have been sporadic calls for its reintroduction, especially as a measure to reduce youth crime,{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} but no major political party has made it part of its platform.

• Conscription in Australia

;WWI:

• Conscription Crisis of 1917 in Canada
• Recruitment to the British Army during the First World War
• World War I conscription in Australia

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

• {{cite book |editor-last=McGibbon |editor-first=Ian |chapter=Conscription |title=Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History |pages=117–120 |date=2000}}

{{Oceania in topic|Conscription in}}

{{New Zealand elections}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Military education and training in New Zealand

Category:Military sociology