New Zealand

{{Further|New Zealand place names}}

File:Detail of 1657 map Polus Antarcticus by Jan Janssonius, showing Nova Zeelandia.png

The first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, named the islands Staten Land, believing they were part of the {{lang|nl|Staten Landt}} that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America.{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |chapter=European discovery of New Zealand – Tasman's achievement |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/3 |access-date=24 January 2011 |archive-date=6 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106180047/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/3 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz//tm/scholarly/tei-Stout44-t2-body-d1-d1.html |title=The Pamphlet Collection of Sir Robert Stout: Volume 44. Chapter 1, Discovery and Settlement |first=John |last=Bathgate |publisher=NZETC |quote=He named the country Staaten Land, in honour of the States-General of Holland, in the belief that it was part of the great southern continent. |access-date=17 August 2018 |archive-date=24 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724203829/http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz//tm/scholarly/tei-Stout44-t2-body-d1-d1.html |url-status=live }} Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery {{lang|la|Nova Zeelandia}} from Latin, after the Dutch province of Zeeland.{{cite book |last=Mackay |first=Duncan |chapter=The Search for the Southern Land |date=1986 |editor-last=Fraser |editor-first=B. |title=The New Zealand Book of Events |location=Auckland |publisher=Reed Methuen |pages=52–54}} This name was later anglicised to New Zealand.{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/stream/b24850366#page/n6/mode/1up |page=iii |first=James |last=Wood |title=The Nuttall Encyclopaedia: Being a Concise and Comprehensive Dictionary of General Knowledge |publisher=Frederick Warne & Co |date=1900 |location=London and New York |access-date=10 October 2016}}{{cite book |first=Malcolm |last=McKinnon |author-link=Malcolm McKinnon |chapter=Place names – Naming the country and the main islands |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/place-names/1 |access-date=24 January 2011 |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613111940/https://teara.govt.nz/en/place-names/page-1 |url-status=live }}

This was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language (spelled Nu Tirani in Te Tiriti o Waitangi). In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled "{{lang|mi|He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni}}" was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand. It was prepared by {{lang|mi|Te W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni}}, the United Tribes of New Zealand, and a copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg.{{cite web |last=Grant (Lord Glenelg) |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg |date=1836 |title=Extract of a Despatch from Lord Glenelg to Major-General Sir Richard Bourke, New South Wales |via=Waitangi Associates |url=http://www.waitangi.co.nz/declarationindependence.htm#Extract |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208175521/http://www.waitangi.co.nz/declarationindependence.htm#Extract |url-status=live }}{{sfn|Palmer|2008|p=41}}

{{lang|mi|Aotearoa}} (pronounced {{IPA|mi|aɔˈtɛaɾɔa|}} in Māori and {{IPAc-en|ˌ|aʊ|t|ɛəˈr|oʊ|.|ə}} in English; often translated as 'land of the long white cloud'){{sfn|King|2003|p=41}} is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans; {{lang|mi|Aotearoa}} originally referred to just the North Island.{{sfn|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=72}} Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including {{lang|mi|Te Ika-a-Māui}} ({{gloss|the fish of {{lang|mi|italic=no|Māui}}}}) for the North Island and {{lang|mi|Te Waipounamu}} ({{gloss|the waters of greenstone}}) or {{lang|mi|Te Waka o Aoraki}} ({{gloss|the canoe of {{lang|mi|italic=no|Aoraki}}}}) for the South Island.{{sfn|Mein Smith|2005|p=6}} Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island), and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Brunner |author-link=Thomas Brunner |url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/BruJour-fig-BruJour_P001a.html |title=The Great Journey: An expedition to explore the interior of the Middle Island, New Zealand, 1846-8 |publisher=Royal Geographical Society |date=1851 |access-date=13 June 2010 |archive-date=31 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031052634/http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/BruJour-fig-BruJour_P001a.html |url-status=live }} In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or {{lang|mi|Te Ika-a-Māui}}, and South Island or {{lang|mi|Te Waipounamu}}.{{cite press release |first=Maurice |last=Williamson |title=Names of NZ's two main islands formalised |date=10 October 2013 |publisher=New Zealand Government |url=http://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/names-nz%E2%80%99s-two-main-islands-formalised |access-date=1 May 2017 |archive-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008074402/http://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/names-nz%E2%80%99s-two-main-islands-formalised |url-status=live }} For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together. Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together (Aotearoa New Zealand);{{cite web|author=Ministry of Health|date=24 June 2021|title=COVID-19: Elimination strategy for Aotearoa New Zealand|url=https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19-novel-coronavirus/covid-19-response-planning/covid-19-elimination-strategy-aotearoa-new-zealand|access-date=15 July 2021|archive-date=2 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202142043/https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19-novel-coronavirus/covid-19-response-planning/covid-19-elimination-strategy-aotearoa-new-zealand|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last1=Larner|first1=Wendy|date=31 May 2021|title=COVID-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand|volume=51|issue=sup1|pages=S1–S3|doi=10.1080/03036758.2021.1908208|bibcode=2021JRSNZ..51S...1L |doi-access=free|issn=0303-6758 }} however, this has no official recognition.{{Cite news|title=Using 'Aotearoa' and 'New Zealand' together 'as it should be' - Jacinda Ardern|language=en|work=Newshub |url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2019/12/using-aotearoa-and-new-zealand-together-as-it-should-be-jacinda-ardern.html|date=17 December 2019|access-date=18 July 2021|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718225639/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2019/12/using-aotearoa-and-new-zealand-together-as-it-should-be-jacinda-ardern.html|url-status=dead}}

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{{Main|History of New Zealand}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of New Zealand history}}

File:Polynesian Migration.svg descend from Polynesians whose ancestors emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia between 3000 and 1000 BCE and then travelled east, reaching the Society Islands {{circa|1000 CE}}. After a pause of 200 to 300 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Atholl |author1-link=Atholl Anderson |last2=Spriggs |first2=Matthew |date=1993 |title=Late colonization of East Polynesia |journal=Antiquity |volume=67 |issue=255 |pages=200–217 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00045324 |s2cid=162638670 |issn=1745-1744}}{{Cite journal |last1=Jacomb |first1=Chris |last2=Anderson |first2=Atholl |author2-link=Atholl Anderson |last3=Higham |first3=Thomas |date=1999 |title=Dating the first New Zealanders: The chronology of Wairau Bar |journal=Antiquity |volume=73 |issue=280 |pages=420–427 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00088360 |s2cid=161058755 |issn=1745-1744}}{{Cite journal |last1=Wilmshurst |first1=J. M. |last2=Hunt |first2=T. L. |last3=Lipo |first3=C. P. |last4=Anderson |first4=A. J. |title=High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia |doi=10.1073/pnas.1015876108 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=5 |pages=1815–20 |date=2010 |pmid=21187404 |pmc=3033267 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.1815W|doi-access=free }} |alt=One set of arrows point from Taiwan to Melanesia to Fiji/Samoa and then to the Marquesas Islands. The population then spread, some going south to New Zealand and others going north to Hawai'i. A second set start in southern Asia and end in Melanesia.]]

The first people to reach New Zealand were Polynesians in ocean going {{lang|mi|waka}}, who are believed to have arrived in several waves, approximately between 1280 and 1350 CE. According to most Māori oral traditions, the islands were first discovered by the semi-legendary explorer Kupe while in pursuit of a giant octopus.{{cite web |title=Kupe |url=https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/10732 |website=collections.tepapa.govt.nz |publisher=Te Papa Tongarewa |access-date=10 December 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718081924/https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/10732 |url-status=live }} These traditions held that Kupe was then followed by a great fleet of settlers, who set out from Hawaiki in eastern Polynesia in around 1350.{{cite web |last1=Howe |first1=K.R. |title='Ideas about Māori origins - 1840s–early 20th century: Māori tradition and the Great Fleet' |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/ideas-about-maori-origins/page-3 |website=Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=29 May 2024 |date=2005 |archive-date=29 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529034104/https://teara.govt.nz/en/ideas-about-maori-origins/page-3 |url-status=live }} The existence of a single great fleet which settled New Zealand has since been superseded by the belief that the majority of settlement was a planned and deliberate event that occurred over several decades.{{Cite journal | last1=Walters | first1=Richard | last2=Buckley | first2=Hallie|last3=Jacomb|first3=Chris|last4=Matisoo-Smith |first4=Elizabeth| title=Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|volume=30| issue=4 |pages=351–376|doi=10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y|date=7 October 2017|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Jacomb |first1=Chris |last2=Holdaway |first2=Richard N. |last3=Allentoft |first3=Morten E. |last4=Bunce |first4=Michael |last5=Oskam |first5=Charlotte L. |last6=Walter |first6=Richard |last7=Brooks |first7=Emma |date=2014 |title=High-precision dating and ancient DNA profiling of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes) eggshell documents a complex feature at Wairau Bar and refines the chronology of New Zealand settlement by Polynesians |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=50 |pages=24–30 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.023 |bibcode=2014JArSc..50...24J |url=http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/23310/ |access-date=22 March 2020 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001040957/https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/23310/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last1=Walters |first1=Richard |last2=Buckley |first2=Hallie |last3=Jacomb |first3=Chris |last4=Matisoo-Smith |first4=Elizabeth |title=Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=351–376 |doi=10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y |date=7 October 2017 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Roberton |first=J. B. W. |date=1956 |title=Genealogies as a basis for Maori chronology |journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_65_1956/Volume_65,_No._1/Genealogies_as_a_basis_for_Maori_chronology,_by_J._B._W._Roberton,_p_45%9654/p1 |access-date=22 March 2020 |archive-date=10 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310165840/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_65_1956/Volume_65%2C_No._1/Genealogies_as_a_basis_for_Maori_chronology%2C_by_J._B._W._Roberton%2C_p_45%EF%BF%BD54/p1 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite journal |doi= 10.1126/science.1166083 |last1= Moodley |first1=Y. |last2=Linz |first2=B. |last3=Yamaoka |first3=Y. |last4=Windsor |first4=H. M. |last5=Breurec |first5=S. |last6=Wu |first6=J.-Y. |last7=Maady |first7=A. |last8=Bernhöft |first8=S. |last9=Thiberge |first9=J.-M. |last10=Phuanukoonnon |first10=S. |last11=Jobb |first11=G. |last12=Siba |first12=P. |last13=Graham |first13=D. Y. |last14=Marshall |first14=B. J. |last15=Achtman |first15=M. |display-authors=3 |title=The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective |journal=Science |volume=323 |issue=5913 |pages=527–530 |date=2009 |pmid=19164753 |pmc=2827536 |bibcode=2009Sci...323..527M}} The exact date of this settlement is unclear, with recent sources favouring settlement in the 14th century. While mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest that New Zealand was first settled between 1250 and 1300,{{sfn|Mein Smith|2005|p= 6}}{{Cite journal |last1=Wilmshurst |first1=J. M. |last2=Anderson |first2=A. J. |last3=Higham |first3=T. F. G. |last4=Worthy |first4=T. H. |title=Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat|doi=10.1073/pnas.0801507105 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=22 |pages=7676–80 |date=2008 |pmid=18523023 |pmc=2409139 |bibcode=2008PNAS..105.7676W|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-McIntosh |first1=Rosalind P. |last2=Scrimshaw |first2=Brian J. |last3=Hatfield |first3=Peter J. |last4=Penny |first4=David |title=Testing migration patterns and estimating founding population size in Polynesia by using human mtDNA sequences |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=15 |pages=9047–52 |date=1998 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.15.9047 |pmid=9671802 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.9047M |pmc=21200|doi-access=free }} no human remains, artefacts or structures can be reliably dated to earlier than the Kaharoa eruption of Mount Tarawera in around 1314 CE.{{Cite journal|last1=Jacomb|first1=Chris|last2=Holdaway|first2=Richard N.|last3=Allentoft|first3=Morten E.|last4=Bunce|first4=Michael|last5=Oskam|first5=Charlotte L.|last6=Walter|first6=Richard|last7=Brooks|first7=Emma|year=2014|title=High-precision dating and ancient DNA profiling of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes) eggshell documents a complex feature at Wairau Bar and refines the chronology of New Zealand settlement by Polynesians|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|language=en|volume=50|pages=24–30|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.023|bibcode=2014JArSc..50...24J|url=http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/23310/|access-date=22 March 2020|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001040957/https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/23310/|url-status=live}} This scenario is also consistent with a debated third line of oral evidence,{{cite book |last1=Moon |first1=Paul |title=Encounters: The Creation of New Zealand: The Creation of New Zealand ePub |date=2013 |chapter=12 - The Great Fleet |publisher=Penguin Random House New Zealand |location=Google Books |isbn=9781742539188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_KcDwAAQBAJ&q=kupe+moon |access-date=24 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524153615/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=t_KcDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=kupe+moon&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=kupe%20moon&f=false |url-status=live }} traditional genealogies ({{Lang|mi|whakapapa}}) which point to around 1350 as a probable arrival date for several of the migratory waka (canoes) from which many Māori trace their descent.{{cite web |last1=Ray |first1=William |title=The Aotearoa History Show - 2: Tangata Whenua |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/programmes/the-aotearoa-history-show/story/2018716783/2-tangata-whenua |website=RNZ History |date=8 October 2019 |publisher=RNZ |access-date=24 May 2024 |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224074455/https://www.rnz.co.nz/programmes/the-aotearoa-history-show/story/2018716783/2-tangata-whenua |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |url=https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10347866 |title=Hemispheric black carbon increase after the 13th-century Māori arrival in New Zealand |journal=Nature |volume=598 |date=6 October 2021 |bibcode=2021Natur.598...82M |access-date=24 May 2023 |last1=McConnell |first1=Joseph R. |last2=Chellman |first2=Nathan J. |last3=Mulvaney |first3=Robert |last4=Eckhardt |first4=Sabine |last5=Stohl |first5=Andreas |last6=Plunkett |first6=Gill |last7=Kipfstuhl |first7=Sepp |last8=Freitag |first8=Johannes |last9=Isaksson |first9=Elisabeth |last10=Gleason |first10=Kelly E. |last11=Brugger |first11=Sandra O. |last12=McWethy |first12=David B. |last13=Abram |first13=Nerilie J. |last14=Liu |first14=Pengfei |last15=Aristarain |first15=Alberto J. |issue=7879 |pages=82–85 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03858-9 |pmid=34616056 |s2cid=238421371 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306074900/https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10347866 |url-status=live }} Some Māori later migrated to the Chatham Islands where they developed their distinct Moriori culture;{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Ross |chapter=Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence |date=1994 |editor-last=Sutton |editor-first=Douglas |title=The Origins of the First New Zealanders |location=Auckland |publisher=Auckland University Press |pages=123–135}} a later 1835 invasion by Māori iwi resulted in the massacre and virtual extinction of the Moriori.{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/moriori/4 |chapter=The impact of new arrivals |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |last=Davis |first=Denise |date=September 2007 |access-date=30 April 2010 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419204452/https://teara.govt.nz/en/Moriori/4 |url-status=live }}

In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman's crew,{{cite web|last1=Mitchell|first1=Hillary|title=Te Tau Ihu|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/te-tau-ihu-tribes|website=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|publisher=Ministry for Culture and Heritage|access-date=15 September 2016|date=10 February 2015|archive-date=28 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828130409/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/te-tau-ihu-tribes|url-status=live}}{{sfn|Mein Smith|2005|p=23}} four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.{{cite book |page=82 |title=Two Worlds: First Meetings Between Maori and Europeans 1642–1772 |author-link=Anne Salmond (historian) |first=Anne |last=Salmond |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Auckland |isbn=0-670-83298-7 |date=1991}} Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.{{sfn|Mein Smith|2005|p=23}} Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water.{{sfn|King|2003|p=122}} The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.{{cite journal |last=Fitzpatrick |first=John |date=2004 |title=Food, warfare and the impact of Atlantic capitalism in Aotearo/New Zealand |journal=Australasian Political Studies Association Conference: APSA 2004 Conference Papers |url= https://www.adelaide.edu.au/apsa/docs_papers/Others/Fitzpatrick.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511142553/https://www.adelaide.edu.au/apsa/docs_papers/Others/Fitzpatrick.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2011}} The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.{{Cite book |first= Barry |last=Brailsford |title=Arrows of Plague |location=Wellington |date=1972 |page=35 |publisher=Hick Smith and Sons |isbn=0-456-01060-2}} From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.{{cite book |editor-last=Brock |editor-first=Peggy |title=Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |chapter=Broken Tongues and Foreign Hearts |last=Wagstrom |first=Thor |location=Boston |date=2005 |isbn=978-90-04-13899-5 |pages=71 and 73}} The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.{{cite book |title=May the people live: a history of Māori health development 1900–1920 |first=Raeburn |last=Lange |publisher=Auckland University Press |date=1999 |isbn=978-1-86940-214-3 |page=18}}

File:Treatyofwaitangi.jpg|alt=A torn sheet of paper]]

The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832.{{cite book |chapter=Busby, James – Biography |first=Claudia |last=Orange |author-link=Claudia Orange |date=1990 |title=Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |editor1-first=W. H. |editor1-last=Oliver |editor1-link=W. H. Oliver |editor2-first=Claudia |editor2-last=Orange |editor3-first=Jock |editor3-last=Phillips |editor3-link=Jock Phillips |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1b54/busby-james |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627165152/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1b54/busby-james |url-status=live }} His duties, given to him by Governor Bourke in Sydney, were to protect settlers and traders "of good standing", prevent "outrages" against Māori, and apprehend escaped convicts.{{cite web |title=First British Resident comes ashore |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/james-busby-inaugurated-british-resident |website=NZHistory |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=19 October 2021 |language=en |date=24 December 2020 |archive-date=18 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018233248/https://www.nzhistory.govt.nz/james-busby-inaugurated-british-resident |url-status=live }} In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection. Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.{{cite book |chapter=Sir George Gipps |first=Bernard John |last=Foster |title=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |orig-year=1966 |editor-first=Alexander Hare |editor-last=McLintock |editor-link=Alexander Hare McLintock |date=April 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/gipps-sir-george/1 |via=TeAra.govt.nz |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117015416/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/gipps-sir-george/1 |url-status=live }} The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |chapter=Nation and government – The origins of nationhood |orig-year=2005 |date=16 September 2016 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |editor-first=Jock |editor-last=Phillips |editor-link=Jock Phillips |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-1 |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524222233/https://teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-1 |url-status=live }} In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington,{{cite book |chapter=Settlement from 1840 to 1852 |author= |orig-year=1966 |title=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |editor-first=Alexander Hare |editor-last=McLintock |editor-link=Alexander Hare McLintock |date=April 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/land-settlement/3 |via=TeAra.govt.nz |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120200926/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/land-settlement/3 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |chapter=Akaroa, French Settlement At |first=Bernard John |last=Foster |orig-year=1966 |title=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |editor-first=Alexander Hare |editor-last=McLintock |editor-link=Alexander Hare McLintock |date=April 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/akaroa-french-settlement-at/1 |via=TeAra.govt.nz |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120154314/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/akaroa-french-settlement-at/1 |url-status=live }} Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.{{cite book |chapter=Hobson, William – Biography |first=K. A. |last=Simpson |date=1990 |title=Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |editor1-first=W. H. |editor1-last=Oliver |editor1-link=W. H. Oliver |editor2-first=Claudia |editor2-last=Orange |editor2-link=Claudia Orange |editor3-first=Jock |editor3-last=Phillips |editor3-link=Jock Phillips |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1h29/hobson-william |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820074742/https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1h29/hobson-william |url-status=live }} With the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.{{cite book |chapter=History of immigration – British immigration and the New Zealand Company |first=Jock |last=Phillips |author-link=Jock Phillips |orig-year=2005 |date=1 August 2015 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |editor-first=Jock |editor-last=Phillips |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/history-of-immigration/page-3 |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310083655/https://teara.govt.nz/en/history-of-immigration/page-3 |url-status=live }}

New Zealand was administered as a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony, the Colony of New Zealand, on 3 May 1841.{{cite web |title=Crown colony era – the Governor-General |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/history-of-the-governor-general/crown-colony-era |website=NZHistory |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=March 2009 |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302210954/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/history-of-the-governor-general/crown-colony-era |url-status=live }}{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Moon |title=New Zealand Birth Certificates – 50 of New Zealand's Founding Documents |author-link=Paul Moon |publisher=AUT Media |year=2010 |page=66|isbn=978-0-95829971-8}} Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large areas of Māori land were confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.{{cite web |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/new-zealands-19th-century-wars/introduction |title=New Zealand's 19th-century wars – overview |website=NZHistory |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=April 2009 |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114212246/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/new-zealands-19th-century-wars/introduction |url-status=live }}

File:1863 Meeting of Settlers and Maoris at Hawke's Bay, New Zealand.jpg. Engraving, 1863.|alt=Black and white engraving depicting a crowd of people]]

The colony gained a representative government in 1852, and the first Parliament met in 1854.{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |editor-first=Jock |editor-last=Phillips |chapter=Government and nation – From colony to nation |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=16 September 2016 |orig-year=2005 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-2 |access-date=2 February 2011 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226121258/https://teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-2 |url-status=live }} In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy, which was granted in the mid-1860s). Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.{{cite book |last=Temple |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Temple |title=Wellington Yesterday |date=1980 |publisher=John McIndoe |isbn=0-86868-012-5|page=}}{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Levine |first1=Stephen |title=Capital city – A new capital |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/capital-city/page-3 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=4 May 2015 |date=13 July 2012 |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505170521/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/capital-city/page-3 |url-status=live }} Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.{{cite web |title=Parliament moves to Wellington |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/parliament-sits-for-the-first-time-in-wellington |website=NZHistory |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=27 April 2017 |date=January 2017 |archive-date=25 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425175533/https://nzhistory.govt.nz/parliament-sits-for-the-first-time-in-wellington |url-status=live }}

In 1886, New Zealand annexed the volcanic Kermadec Islands, about {{cvt|1000|km}} northeast of Auckland. Since 1937, the islands are uninhabited except for about six people at Raoul Island station. These islands put the northern border of New Zealand at 29 degrees South latitude.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kermadec Islands |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, Te Ara |editor-first=A. H. |editor-last=McLintock |year=1966 |last=Jobberns |first=George |author-link=George Jobberns |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/kermadec-islands |access-date=18 March 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319004030/https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/kermadec-islands |url-status=live }} After the 1982 UNCLOS, the islands contributed significantly to New Zealand's exclusive economic zone.{{cite web |title=Pacific Island Exclusive Economic Zones |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/map/6964/pacific-island-exclusive-economic-zones |website=TEARA |access-date=24 October 2022 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024211306/https://teara.govt.nz/en/map/6964/pacific-island-exclusive-economic-zones |url-status=live }}

In 1891, the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party.{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |chapter=History – Liberal to Labour |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/page-5 |access-date=27 April 2017 |archive-date=27 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427192640/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/page-5 |url-status=live }} The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office,{{DNZB |last=Hamer |first=David |id=2s11 |title= Seddon, Richard John |access-date=27 April 2017}} passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893, New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions in 1894.{{cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Boxall |first2=Peter |last2=Haynes |title=Strategy and Trade Union Effectiveness in a Neo-liberal Environment |date=1997 |journal=British Journal of Industrial Relations |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=567–591 |doi=10.1111/1467-8543.00069 |url= http://www.gurn.info/en/topics/global-trade-union-strategies-union-renewal/organizational-innovation-and-change/industrial-relations-and-labour-regulations-affecting-unions2019-structure/strategy-and-trade-union-effectiveness-in-a-neo-liberal-environment |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511134417/http://www.gurn.info/en/topics/global-trade-union-strategies-union-renewal/organizational-innovation-and-change/industrial-relations-and-labour-regulations-affecting-unions2019-structure/strategy-and-trade-union-effectiveness-in-a-neo-liberal-environment |archive-date=11 May 2011}} The Liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894, a world first.{{Cite news |title=A brief history of the minimum wage in New Zealand |language=en |work=Newshub |url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/money/2018/12/a-brief-history-of-the-minimum-wage-in-new-zealand.html |access-date=19 July 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719095546/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/money/2018/12/a-brief-history-of-the-minimum-wage-in-new-zealand.html |url-status=dead }}

In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire,{{London Gazette |issue= 28058|date= 10 September 1907|page= 6149|title=Proclamation}} reflecting its self-governing status.{{cite web |title=Dominion status – Becoming a dominion |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/dominion-day/becoming-dominion |website=NZHistory |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=26 April 2017 |date=September 2014 |archive-date=14 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614164016/https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/dominion-day/becoming-dominion |url-status=live }} In 1947, New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for the country without its consent. The British government's residual legislative powers were later removed by the Constitution Act 1986, and final rights of appeal to British courts were abolished in 2003.

Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars{{cite web |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war-and-society |title=War and Society |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=9 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109201601/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war-and-society |url-status=live }} and suffering through the Great Depression.{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Easton |author-link=Brian Easton (economist) |chapter=Economic history – Interwar years and the great depression |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/7 |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516031039/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/7 |url-status=live }} The depression led to the election of the first Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Derby |chapter=Strikes and labour disputes – Wars, depression and first Labour government |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=May 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/strikes-and-labour-disputes/6 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-date=23 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123070622/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/strikes-and-labour-disputes/6 |url-status=live }} New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War,{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Easton |chapter=Economic history – Great boom, 1935–1966 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/9 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516031023/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/9 |url-status=live }} and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.{{cite book |first=Basil |last=Keane |chapter=Te Māori i te ohanga – Māori in the economy – Urbanisation |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/te-maori-i-te-ohanga-maori-in-the-economy/6 |access-date=7 January 2011 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516031007/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/te-maori-i-te-ohanga-maori-in-the-economy/6 |url-status=live }} A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.{{cite book |first=Te Ahukaramū |last=Royal |chapter=Māori – Urbanisation and renaissance |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |access-date=1 February 2011 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/maori/5 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120153741/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/maori/5 |url-status=live }} In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi,{{cite book |title=Healing the Past, Building a Future: A Guide to Treaty of Waitangi Claims and Negotiations with the Crown |url= https://www.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Red-Book-Healing-the-past-building-a-future.pdf |publisher=Office of Treaty Settlements |isbn= 978-0-478-32436-5 |access-date=26 April 2017 |date=March 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180127162705/https://www.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Red-Book-Healing-the-past-building-a-future.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2018|url-status= dead}} although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s.{{cite report |title=Report on the Crown's Foreshore and Seabed Policy |url=https://forms.justice.govt.nz/search/WT/reports/reportSummary.html?reportId=wt_DOC_68000605 |publisher=Ministry of Justice |access-date=26 April 2017 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201121940/https://forms.justice.govt.nz/search/WT/reports/reportSummary.html?reportId=wt_DOC_68000605 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Barker |first1=Fiona |chapter=Debate about the foreshore and seabed |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/video/34605/debate-about-the-foreshore-and-seabed |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=26 April 2017 |date=June 2012 |archive-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718081852/https://teara.govt.nz/en/video/34605/debate-about-the-foreshore-and-seabed |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Geography of New Zealand|Environment of New Zealand}}

File:New Zealand 23 October 2002.jpg dominate the South Island, while the North Island's Northland Peninsula stretches towards the subtropics.|alt=Islands of New Zealand as seen from satellite]]

New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands.{{cite book|last=Walrond|first=Carl|title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|date=8 February 2005|chapter=Natural environment – Geography and geology|chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/page-1|access-date=26 December 2020|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221014857/https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/page-1|url-status=live}} The two main islands (the North Island, or {{lang|mi|Te Ika-a-Māui}}, and the South Island, or {{lang|mi|Te Waipounamu}}) are separated by Cook Strait, {{convert|22|km|mi}} wide at its narrowest point.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=The Sea Floor |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/cook-strait/1 |access-date=13 January 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120164724/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/cook-strait/1 |url-status=live }} Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island (across the Foveaux Strait), Chatham Island, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf),{{cite web |url= http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/hauraki/default.asp |title=Hauraki Gulf islands |publisher=Auckland City Council |access-date=13 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101225020855/http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/hauraki/default.asp |archive-date=25 December 2010}} D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds){{cite web |last=Hindmarsh |date=2006 |url= http://www.historic.org.nz/en/Publications/HeritageNZMagazine/HeritageNz2006/HNZ06-DiscoveringDUrville.aspx |title=Discovering D'Urville |publisher=Heritage New Zealand |access-date=13 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511071150/http://www.historic.org.nz/en/Publications/HeritageNZMagazine/HeritageNz2006/HNZ06-DiscoveringDUrville.aspx |archive-date=11 May 2011}} and Waiheke Island (about {{convert|22|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from central Auckland).{{cite web |url= http://www.auckland-coastguard.org.nz/Information/Distance+Tables.html |title=Distance tables |publisher=Auckland Coastguard |access-date=2 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110123074649/http://www.auckland-coastguard.org.nz/Information/Distance%2BTables.html |archive-date=23 January 2011}}

New Zealand is long and narrow—over {{convert|1600|km|mi}} along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of {{convert|400|km|mi}}{{cite book |title=Heinemann New Zealand atlas |publisher=Heinemann Publishers |first=D. W. |last=McKenzie |date=1987|isbn=0-7900-0187-X}}—with about {{convert|15000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} of coastline and a total land area of {{convert|268000|km2|-2}}.{{cite web |url= http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/PASFull/pasfull.nsf/84bf91b1a7b5d7204c256809000460a4/4c2567ef00247c6acc25697a00043f15?OpenDocument|title=Geography |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=21 December 2009 |date=1999|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100522061011/http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/PASFull/pasfull.nsf/84bf91b1a7b5d7204c256809000460a4/4c2567ef00247c6acc25697a00043f15?OpenDocument |archive-date=22 May 2010}} Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.{{cite book |title=Offshore Options: Managing Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone |publisher=Ministry for the Environment |date=2005 |location=Wellington |url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/offshore-options-jun05.pdf |isbn=0-478-25916-6 |access-date=23 June 2017 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411222516/http://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/offshore-options-jun05.pdf |url-status=dead }}

File:NZL-mtcook-peters-lookout.jpg is the highest point in New Zealand, at 3,724 metres]]

The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.{{cite book |title=The rise and fall of the Southern Alps |first=Glen |last= Coates |publisher=Canterbury University Press |date=2002|page=15|isbn=0-908812-93-0}} There are 18 peaks over {{convert|3000|m|ft}}, the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at {{convert|3724|m|ft}}.{{sfn|Garden|2005|p=52}} Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.{{cite book |first=David |last=Grant |chapter=Southland places – Fiordland's coast |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/southland-places/10 |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-date=28 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628160023/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/southland-places/10 |url-status=live }} The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.{{cite web |title=Central North Island volcanoes |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |access-date=14 January 2011 |url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/national-parks/tongariro/features/central-north-island-volcanoes/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101229222806/http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/national-parks/tongariro/features/central-north-island-volcanoes/ |archive-date=29 December 2010|url-status=dead}} The highly active Taupō Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu ({{convert|2797|m}}). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupō, nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.{{cite web |url= http://www.geonet.org.nz/volcano/activity/taupo/about.html |title=Taupō |publisher=GNS Science |access-date=2 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110324025353/http://www.geonet.org.nz/volcano/activity/taupo/about.html |archive-date=24 March 2011}} New Zealand is prone to earthquakes.

The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates.{{cite book |first1=Keith |last1=Lewis |first2=Scott |last2=Nodder |first3=Lionel |last3=Carter |chapter=Sea floor geology – Active plate boundaries |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sea-floor-geology/2 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120044935/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sea-floor-geology/2 |url-status=live }} New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.{{Cite journal |last1=Wallis |first1=G. P. |last2=Trewick |first2=S. A. |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x |title=New Zealand phylogeography: Evolution on a small continent |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=18 |issue=17 |pages=3548–3580 |date=2009 |pmid= 19674312 |s2cid=22049973 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009MolEc..18.3548W }}{{Cite book |last1=Mortimer |first1=Nick |last2=Campbell |first2=Hamish |title=Zealandia: Our Continent Revealed |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-14-357156-8 |location=Auckland |publisher=Penguin Books |oclc=887230882}} About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere, the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trough east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches{{cite journal |first1=Dawn |last1=Wright |first2=Sherman |last2=Bloomer |first3=Christopher |last3=MacLeod |first4=Brian |last4=Taylor |first5=Andrew |last5=Goodliffe |title=Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series |date=2000 |journal=Marine Geophysical Researches |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=489–512 |doi=10.1023/A:1026514914220 |bibcode=2000MarGR..21..489W |s2cid=6072675 }} further north.

New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a wider region known as Australasia.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Australasia |chapter=The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary |encyclopedia=New Zealand Oxford Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005 |isbn=9780195584516 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001|editor1-last=Deverson |editor1-first=Tony |editor2-last=Kennedy |editor2-first=Graeme}} It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia.{{cite book |last1=Hobbs |first1=Joseph J. |title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography |date=2016 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9781305854956 |page=367 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0rUaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA367}} Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.{{cite book |last1=Hillstrom |first1=Kevin |last2=Collier Hillstrom |first2=Laurie |title=Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues |volume=3 |date=2003 |publisher=ABC-Clio |isbn=9781576076941 |page=25 |quote=... defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.}}

{{main|Climate of New Zealand}}{{Multiple image

| direction = vertical

| image1 = New Zealand Köppen.png

| caption1 = Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of New Zealand

| image2 = Christchurch Botanic Gardens in autumn.jpg

| caption2 = Autumn in the Christchurch Botanic Gardens

}}

New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from {{convert|10|°C|0|abbr=on}} in the south to {{convert|16|°C|0|abbr=on}} in the north.{{cite book |first1=Brett |last1=Mullan |first2=Andrew |last2=Tait |first3=Craig |last3=Thompson |chapter=Climate – New Zealand's climate |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/climate/1 |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120065000/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/climate/1 |url-status=live }} Historical maxima and minima are {{convert|42.4|°C|2|abbr=on}} in Rangiora, Canterbury and {{convert|-25.6|°C|2|abbr=on}} in Ranfurly, Otago.{{cite web |url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/extreme |title=Summary of New Zealand climate extremes |publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research |date=2004 |access-date=30 April 2010 |archive-date=25 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925113200/https://niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/extreme |url-status=live }} Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.{{cite book |first=Carl |last=Walrond |chapter=Natural environment – Climate |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120165411/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Orange |first=Claudia |author-link=Claudia Orange |chapter=Northland region |date=1 May 2015 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/northland-region/ |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=11 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811035809/https://teara.govt.nz/en/northland-region |url-status=live }} Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only {{convert|618|mm|in}} of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.{{cite web |url= http://www.niwa.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44268/rain.xls |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503221956/http://www.niwa.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44268/rain.xls |archive-date=3 May 2011|title=Mean monthly rainfall |publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research |format=XLS |access-date=4 February 2011}} Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.{{cite web |url= http://www.niwascience.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44655/sunshine.xls |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081015102420/http://www.niwascience.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44655/sunshine.xls |archive-date=15 October 2008 |title=Mean monthly sunshine hours |publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research |format=XLS |access-date=4 February 2011}} The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season.{{cite web |title=New Zealand climate and weather |url=http://www.newzealand.com/int/feature/new-zealand-climate-and-weather/ |publisher=Tourism New Zealand |access-date=13 November 2016 |archive-date=20 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020182725/http://www.newzealand.com/int/feature/new-zealand-climate-and-weather/ |url-status=live }} Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.

{|class="wikitable collapsible sortable" style="text-align:right;"

|+Average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of New Zealand{{cite web |url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate |title=Climate data and activities |publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research |access-date=11 February 2016 |date=28 February 2007 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107073139/https://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate%0a |url-status=live }}

|-

!Location

!January high
°C (°F)

!January low
°C (°F)

!July high
°C (°F)

!July low
°C (°F)

!Annual rainfall
mm (in)

|-

|Auckland ||{{Convert|23|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|15|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|15|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|8|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|1212|mm|in|abbr=values}}

|-

|Wellington ||{{Convert|20|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|14|C|F|0|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|11|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|6|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|1207|mm|in|abbr=values}}

|-

|Hokitika

|{{Convert|20|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|12|C|F|0|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|12|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|3|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|2901|mm|in|abbr=values}}

|-

|Christchurch||{{Convert|23|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|12|C|F|0|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|11|C|F|abbr=values}}||{{Convert|2|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|618|mm|in|abbr=values}}

|-

|Alexandra

|{{Convert|25|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|11|C|F|0|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|8|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|-2|C|F|abbr=values}}

|{{Convert|359|mm|in|abbr=values}}

|}

{{Main|Biodiversity of New Zealand}}

File:TeTuatahianui.jpg is a national icon.|alt=Kiwi amongst sticks]]

New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years{{Cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=R. |last2=Millener |first2=P. |title=The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research |date=1993 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=429–33 |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9 |pmid= 21236222|bibcode=1993TEcoE...8..429C }} and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.{{cite book |last1=Trewick |first1=S. A. |last2=Morgan-Richards |first2=M. |date=2014 |title=New Zealand Wild Life |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=9780143568896}}{{Cite book |last1=Lindsey |first1=Terence |last2=Morris |first2=Rod |title=Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2000 |page=14 |isbn=978-1-86950-300-0}} The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal.{{Cite journal |last=McDowall |first=R. M. |date=2008 |title=Process and pattern in the biogeography of New Zealand – a global microcosm?|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=35|issue=2|pages=197–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x |bibcode=2008JBiog..35..197M|s2cid=83921062|issn=1365-2699|access-date=6 April 2021|archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818090359/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x|url-status=live}} About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera.{{cite web |date=May 2010 |url=http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/page.asp?help_faqs_NZ_plants |title=Frequently asked questions about New Zealand plants |publisher=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=8 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908012124/http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/page.asp?help_faqs_NZ_plants |url-status=dead }}{{cite book |last1=De Lange |first1=Peter James |last2=Sawyer |first2=John William David |last3=Rolfe |first3=Jeremy |title=New Zealand Indigenous Vascular Plant Checklist |date=2006 |publisher=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network |isbn=0-473-11306-6}} The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40% of these are endemic.{{cite book |first=Maggy |last=Wassilieff |chapter=Lichens – Lichens in New Zealand |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/lichens/2 |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117000741/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/lichens/2 |url-status=live }} The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Mixed Broadleaf Podocarp and Kauri Forest |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/forests-indigenous/4 |access-date=15 January 2011 |date=April 2010 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117113026/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/forests-indigenous/4 |url-status=live }} The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Mark |chapter=Grasslands – Tussock grasslands |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/grasslands/1 |access-date=17 January 2010 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117000341/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/grasslands/1 |url-status=live }}

Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.{{cite web |title=Commentary on Forest Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region (A Review for Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand and Western Samoa) |date=1997 |publisher=Forestry Department |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7730e/w7730e09.htm#new%20zealand |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207235120/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7730e/w7730e09.htm#new%20zealand |url-status=live }} Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.{{cite journal |last=McGlone |first=M. S. |date=1989 |title=The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes |journal=New Zealand Journal of Ecology |volume=12(S) |pages=115–129 |url= http://nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol12_s_115.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140717220413/http://nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol12_s_115.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2014}} Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land in 1997.{{cite report |last1=Taylor |first1=R. |last2=Smith |first2=I. |title=The state of New Zealand's environment 1997 |date=1997 |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for the Environment |location=Wellington |url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/ser1997/index.html |access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122070627/http://mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/ser1997/index.html |url-status=dead }}

File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg died out when Māori hunted its main prey, the moa, to extinction.|alt=An artist's rendition of a Haast's eagle attacking two moa]]

The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kākāpō, weka and takahē evolving flightlessness.{{cite web |url=http://www.terranature.org/flightlessbirds.htm |title=New Zealand ecology: Flightless birds |work=TerraNature |access-date=17 January 2011 |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408130705/http://www.terranature.org/flightlessBirds.htm |url-status=live }} The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Holdaway |chapter=Extinctions – New Zealand extinctions since human arrival |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/extinctions/4 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120064405/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/extinctions/4 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |date=January 2005 |title=Huge eagles 'dominated NZ skies' |first=Alex |last=Kirby |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4138147.stm |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404073729/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4138147.stm |url-status=live }}

Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara, skinks and geckos), frogs,{{cite web |url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |title=Reptiles and frogs |access-date=25 June 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150129135945/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs/ |archive-date=29 January 2015 |url-status=dead}} such as the protected endangered Hamilton's Frog, spiders,{{cite book |last1=Pollard |first1=Simon |chapter=Spiders and other arachnids |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/spiders-and-other-arachnids |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=25 June 2017 |date=September 2007 |archive-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606043630/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/spiders-and-other-arachnids |url-status=live }} insects ({{lang|mi|wētā|italics=no}}),{{cite web |title=Wētā |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/invertebrates/weta/ |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |access-date=25 June 2017 |archive-date=12 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612074126/http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/invertebrates/weta/ |url-status=live }} and snails.{{cite book |first=Paddy |last=Ryan |chapter=Snails and slugs – Flax snails, giant snails and veined slugs |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/snails-and-slugs/2 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117014939/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/snails-and-slugs/2 |url-status=live }} Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils.{{cite journal |last1=Herrera-Flores |first1=Jorge A. |last2=Stubbs |first2=Thomas L. |last3=Benton |first3=Michael J. |last4=Ruta |first4=Marcello |title=Macroevolutionary patterns in Rhynchocephalia: Is the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) a living fossil?|journal=Palaeontology |date=May 2017 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1111/pala.12284 |bibcode=2017Palgy..60..319H |doi-access=free}} Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.{{cite web |url= http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2006/nzmammal.html |title=Tiny Bones Rewrite Textbooks, first New Zealand land mammal fossil |publisher=University of New South Wales |date=31 May 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070531085218/http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2006/nzmammal.html |archive-date=31 May 2007}}{{Cite journal |last1=Worthy |first1=Trevor H. |last2=Tennyson |first2=Alan J. D. |last3=Archer |first3=Michael |last4=Musser |first4=Anne M. |last5=Hand |first5=Suzanne J. |last6=Jones |first6=Craig |last7=Douglas |first7=Barry J. |last8=McNamara |first8=James A. |last9=Beck |first9=Robin M. D. |title=Miocene mammal reveals a Mesozoic ghost lineage on insular New Zealand, southwest Pacific |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=103 |issue=51 |pages=19419–23 |date=2006 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0605684103|bibcode=2006PNAS..10319419W |pmid=17159151 |pmc=1697831|doi-access=free }} Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.{{cite web |url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/marine-mammals/ |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |title=Marine Mammals |access-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110308103617/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/marine-mammals/ |archive-date=8 March 2011|url-status=dead}} Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.{{cite web |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/sea-and-shore-birds/ |title=Sea and shore birds |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-date=2 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802022849/http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/sea-and-shore-birds/ |url-status=live }} More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species.{{cite web |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/penguins/ |title=Penguins |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915163419/http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/penguins/ |url-status=live }}

Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas.{{cite book |first=Carl |last=Jones |chapter=Reptiles and Amphibians |editor1-first=Martin |editor1-last=Perrow |editor2-last=Davy |editor2-first=Anthony |title=Handbook of Ecological Restoration: Principles of Restoration|volume=2 |page=362 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2002 |isbn=0-521-79128-6}}{{Cite journal |last1=Towns |first1=D. |last2=Ballantine |first2=W. |title=Conservation and restoration of New Zealand Island ecosystems |date=1993 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=452–7 |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(93)90009-E |pmid=21236227|bibcode=1993TEcoE...8..452T }}{{cite journal |title=Island restoration: Exploring the past, anticipating the future |first=Mark |last=Rauzon |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=35 |pages=97–107 |date=2008 |url=http://marineornithology.org/PDF/35_2/35_2_97-107.pdf |access-date=17 January 2011 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606022129/http://marineornithology.org/PDF/35_2/35_2_97-107.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |chapter=New Zealand as an Archipelago: An International Perspective |editor1-first=D. |editor1-last=Towns |editor2-first=C. |editor2-last=Daugherty |editor3-first=I. |editor3-last=Atkinson |date=1990 |title=Ecological Restoration of New Zealand Islands |series="Conservation Sciences Publications" series |volume=Z |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |location=Wellington |pages=3–8 |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/EcologicalRestorationNZIslands.pdf |via=Doc.Govt.nz |access-date=26 November 2013 |archive-date=11 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111044707/http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/EcologicalRestorationNZIslands.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Clear}}

{{Main|New Zealand Government|Politics of New Zealand}}

{{multiple image

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| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg

| alt1 = The King wearing a pinstripe suit

| caption1 = Charles III,
King of New Zealand

| image2 = Cindy Kiro October 2021 (cropped).jpg

| alt2 = A woman wearing medals

| caption2 = Cindy Kiro, Governor-General of New Zealand

| image3 = Christopher Luxon (52535372229) (cropped).jpg

| alt3 = A smiling man wearing a dark business suit and tie

| caption3 = Christopher Luxon, Prime Minister of New Zealand

}}

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy,{{cite web |title=New Zealand's Constitution |url=http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz.htm |publisher=Office of the Governor-General of New Zealand |access-date=13 January 2010 |archive-date=6 April 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030406104325/http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz.htm |url-status=live }} although its constitution is not codified.{{cite news |title=Factsheet – New Zealand – Political Forces |newspaper=The Economist |date=15 February 2005 |url= http://economist.com/countries/NewZealand/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060514204533/http://economist.com/countries/NewZealand/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces |archive-date=14 May 2006 |access-date=4 August 2009}} Charles III is the King of New Zealand{{cite web |title=Royal Titles Act 1974 |at=Section 1 |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html |date=February 1974 |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=8 January 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020151758/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html |url-status=live }} and thus the head of state.{{Cite book |date=1 January 1987 |title=Constitution Act 1986 |at=Section 2.1 |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/whole.html#DLM94210 |quote=The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time. |access-date=15 July 2018 |archive-date=23 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223071437/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/whole.html#DLM94210 |url-status=live }} The king is represented by the governor-general, whom he appoints on the advice of the prime minister.{{cite web |title=The Role of the Governor-General |date=27 February 2017 |url=https://gg.govt.nz/role |publisher=Office of the Governor-General of New Zealand |access-date=6 July 2017 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629234409/https://gg.govt.nz/role |url-status=live }} The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors, and other key public officials,{{cite journal |first=Bruce |last=Harris |title=Replacement of the Royal Prerogative in New Zealand |date=2009 |work=New Zealand Universities Law Review |volume=23 |pages=285–314 |url= https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/41876855/REPLACEMENT-OF-THE-ROYAL-PREROGATIVE-IN-NEW-ZEALAND |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718005846/https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/41876855/REPLACEMENT-OF-THE-ROYAL-PREROGATIVE-IN-NEW-ZEALAND |archive-date=18 July 2011 |access-date=28 August 2016}} and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).{{cite web |title=The Reserve Powers |publisher=Office of the Governor-General of New Zealand |url=http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/powers.htm |access-date=8 January 2011 |archive-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707155415/https://www.gg.govt.nz/role/powers.htm |url-status=live }} The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.

The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the king and the House of Representatives.{{cite web |title=Parliament Brief: What is Parliament? |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/pbrief7/ |access-date=30 November 2016 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029145006/https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/pbrief7/ |url-status=live }} It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950. The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.{{cite book |last1=McLean |first1=Gavin |chapter=Premiers and prime ministers |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/premiers-and-prime-ministers |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=February 2015 |access-date=30 November 2016 |archive-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517231343/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/premiers-and-prime-ministers |url-status=live }} Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |chapter=Government and nation – System of government |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/4 |access-date=9 January 2011 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516022855/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/4 |url-status=live }} Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.{{cite web |title=Principles of Cabinet decision making |publisher=Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet |work=Cabinet Manual |date=2008 |url=http://www.cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/5.11 |access-date=1 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220080943/http://www.cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/5.11 |url-status=live }} The 42nd and current prime minister, since 27 November 2023, is Christopher Luxon.{{cite news |title=Christopher Luxon sworn in as New Zealand's new prime minister |url=https://www.1news.co.nz/2023/11/27/christopher-luxon-sworn-in-as-new-zealands-new-prime-minister/ |access-date=27 November 2023 |agency=1News |publisher=TVNZ |date=27 November 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127001802/https://www.1news.co.nz/2023/11/27/christopher-luxon-sworn-in-as-new-zealands-new-prime-minister/ |url-status=live }}

File:Seddon Statue in Parliament Grounds.jpg, the "Beehive" (Executive Wing), and Parliament House (right), in Parliament Grounds, Wellington|alt=A block of buildings fronted by a large statue.]]

A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.{{cite web |title=The electoral cycle |url=https://cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 |publisher=Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet |work=Cabinet Manual |access-date=30 April 2017 |date=2008 |archive-date=27 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127135132/https://www.cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 |url-status=live }} Almost all general elections between {{NZ election link year|1853}} and {{NZ election link year|1993}} were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.{{cite web |title=First past the post – the road to MMP |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/fpp-to-mmp/first-past-the-post |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=September 2009 |access-date=9 January 2011 |archive-date=1 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701152057/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/fpp-to-mmp/first-past-the-post |url-status=live }} Since the {{NZ election link|1996}}, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used. Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate, and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),{{cite web |title=Number of electorates and electoral populations: 2018 Census |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/number-of-electorates-and-electoral-populations-2018-census |work=Stats.Govt.nz |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=9 March 2021 |date=23 September 2019 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213201633/https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/number-of-electorates-and-electoral-populations-2018-census |url-status=live }} and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in Parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.{{cite web |url= http://www.elections.org.nz/voting-system/mmp-voting-system/sainte-lagu%C3%AB-allocation-formula |title=Sainte-Laguë allocation formula |publisher=Electoral Commission |date=4 February 2013 |access-date=31 May 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130914170452/http://www.elections.org.nz/voting-system/mmp-voting-system/sainte-lagu%C3%AB-allocation-formula |archive-date=14 September 2013 |url-status=dead}} Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour. More parties have been represented in Parliament since the introduction of MMP.{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Curtin |first1=Jennifer |last2=Miller |first2=Raymond |author1-link=Jennifer Curtin |title=Political parties |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-parties |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=24 July 2023 |date=21 July 2015 |archive-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617000229/https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-parties |url-status=live }}

New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice,{{cite web |title=Role of the Chief Justice |url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/role-judges/role-chief |publisher=Courts of New Zealand |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325090353/https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/role-judges/role-chief |url-status=live }} includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.{{cite web |title=Structure of the court system |url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/structure-of-the-court-system |publisher=Courts of New Zealand |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142935/https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/structure-of-the-court-system |url-status=live }} Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence. This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.{{cite web |url= http://www.justice.govt.nz/courts/the-judiciary |title=The Judiciary |publisher=Ministry of Justice |access-date=9 January 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101124005516/http://justice.govt.nz/courts/the-judiciary |archive-date=24 November 2010}}

New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.{{Cite web |title=Fragile States Index Heat Map |url=https://fragilestatesindex.org/analytics/fsi-heat-map/ |access-date=18 August 2020 |work=Fragile States Index |archive-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814135705/https://fragilestatesindex.org/analytics/fsi-heat-map/ |url-status=live }} {{As of|2023|post=,}} the country is ranked second in the strength of its democratic institutions,{{cite web |title=Democracy Index 2023 |url=https://d1qqtien6gys07.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Democracy-Index-2023-Final-report-11-15.pdf |publisher=Economist Intelligence Unit |access-date=25 January 2025 |page=9 |date=2024 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007091241/https://d1qqtien6gys07.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Democracy-Index-2023-Final-report-11-15.pdf |url-status=live }} and third in government transparency and lack of corruption.{{cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2023 |url=https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/CPI-2023-Report.pdf |publisher=Transparency International |access-date=25 January 2025 |date=January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124131556/https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/CPI-2023-Report.pdf |url-status=live }} LGBT rights in the nation are also recognised as among the most tolerant in Oceania.{{cite web|last1=Carroll|first1=Aengus|title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition|url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|publisher=International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association|access-date=4 December 2016|page=183|date=May 2016|quote=In Australia and New Zealand, lesbian, gay, and bisexual people continue to enjoy many legal rights denied to their comrades across the vast majority of the Pacific.|archive-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902183618/http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|url-status=live}} New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 82% voter turnout during recent general elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%.{{cite web |title=New Zealand |url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/new-zealand/ |access-date=31 January 2023 |work=OECD Better Life Index |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121150046/https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/new-zealand/ |url-status=live }} However, this is untrue for local council elections; a historically low 36% of eligible New Zealanders voted in the 2022 local elections, compared with an already low 42% turnout in 2019.{{Cite web |date=10 October 2022 |title=Council election turnout: Low participation revives call for online voting |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/local-elections-2022%20/476379/council-election-turnout-low-participation-revives-call-for-online-voting |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=RNZ |language=en-nz |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529125036/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/local-elections-2022%20/476379/council-election-turnout-low-participation-revives-call-for-online-voting |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=30 May 2023 |title=Auckland councillor says record low local election turnout 'extremely concerning' |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/local-elections-2022-calls-for-review-over-extremely-concerning-record-low-turnout/TMDMIHJEO7ER7C6LYD3DRWES24/ |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009114807/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/local-elections-2022-calls-for-review-over-extremely-concerning-record-low-turnout/TMDMIHJEO7ER7C6LYD3DRWES24/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=13 October 2022 |title=The media and low local election turnout |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/mediawatch/audio/2018862513/the-media-and-low-local-election-turnout |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=RNZ |language=en-nz |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529125035/https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/mediawatch/audio/2018862513/the-media-and-low-local-election-turnout |url-status=live }} A 2017 human rights report by the United States Department of State noted that the New Zealand government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.{{cite web |title=New Zealand |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2017&dlid=277105 |work=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2017 |publisher=United States Department of State |access-date=9 December 2018 |archive-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101130359/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2017&dlid=277105 |url-status=live }} In terms of structural discrimination, the New Zealand Human Rights Commission has asserted that there is strong, consistent evidence that it is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue.{{cite web |url= http://www.hrc.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/HRC-Structural-Report_final_webV1.pdf/ |title=A fair go for all? Rite tahi tätou katoa? Addressing Structural Discrimination in Public Services |date=2012 |publisher=Human Rights Commission |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330134905/http://www.hrc.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/HRC-Structural-Report_final_webV1.pdf/ |archive-date=30 March 2014 |access-date=22 July 2023 |page=50}} One example of structural inequality in New Zealand can be seen in the criminal justice system. According to the Ministry of Justice, Māori are overrepresented, comprising 45% of New Zealanders convicted of crimes and 53% of those imprisoned, while only being 16.5% of the population.{{Cite web |last=Cornish |first=Sophie |date=1 May 2022 |title=Māori even more overrepresented in prisons, despite $98m strategy |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/128306867/mori-even-more-overrepresented-in-prisons-despite-98m-strategy |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Stuff |language=en |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529125040/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/128306867/mori-even-more-overrepresented-in-prisons-despite-98m-strategy |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Hāpaitia te Oranga Tangata {{!}} New Zealand Ministry of Justice |url=https://www.justice.govt.nz/justice-sector-policy/key-initiatives/key-initiatives-archive/hapaitia-te-oranga-tangata/#:~:text=M%C4%81ori%20are%20overrepresented%20at%20every,of%20the%20New%20Zealand%20population. |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=www.justice.govt.nz |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601130207/https://www.justice.govt.nz/justice-sector-policy/key-initiatives/key-initiatives-archive/hapaitia-te-oranga-tangata/#:~:text=M%C4%81ori%20are%20overrepresented%20at%20every,of%20the%20New%20Zealand%20population. |url-status=live }}

{{See also|International rankings of New Zealand}}

{{Main|Regions of New Zealand|Realm of New Zealand}}

File:NZ Regional Councils and Territorial Authorities 2017.svg

The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.{{cite web |url= http://www.library.otago.ac.nz/pdf/hoc_fr_bulletins/31_bulletin.pdf |title=New Zealand's Nine Provinces (1853–76) |work=Friends of the Hocken Collections |publisher=University of Otago |date=March 2000 |access-date=13 January 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110205012614/http://www.library.otago.ac.nz/pdf/hoc_fr_bulletins/31_bulletin.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead}} Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Provincial Divergencies |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/provinces-and-provincial-districts/3 |access-date=7 January 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120183114/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/provinces-and-provincial-districts/3 |url-status=live }} The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays{{cite book |last1=Swarbrick |first1=Nancy |chapter=Public holidays |chapter-url=http://teara.govt.nz/en/public-holidays |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=25 June 2017 |date=September 2016 |archive-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606043650/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/public-holidays |url-status=live }} and sporting rivalries.{{cite web |title=Overview – regional rugby |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/regional-rugby/overview |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=September 2010 |access-date=13 January 2011 |archive-date=22 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822104629/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/regional-rugby/overview |url-status=live }}

Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.{{cite journal |last1=Dollery |first1=Brian |last2=Keogh |first2=Ciaran |last3=Crase |first3=Lin |title=Alternatives to Amalgamation in Australian Local Government: Lessons from the New Zealand Experience |date=2007 |journal=Sustaining Regions |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=50–69 |url= http://www.anzrsai.org/system/files/f8/f9/f39/f40/o186//Dollery%20sustaining%20regions%20article.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070829001212/http://www.anzrsai.org/system/files/f8/f9/f39/f40/o186//Dollery%20sustaining%20regions%20article.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2007}} In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.{{cite book |title=Merger mania: the assault on local government |first=Andrew |last=Sancton |date=2000 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |page=84 |isbn=0-7735-2163-1}} The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.{{cite web |url= http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Methods%20and%20Services/Tables/Subnational%20population%20estimates/subpopest2001-10.ashx |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110610051916/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Methods%20and%20Services/Tables/Subnational%20population%20estimates/subpopest2001-10.ashx |archive-date=10 June 2011|title=Subnational population estimates at 30 June 2010 (boundaries at 1 November 2010) |date=26 October 2010 |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=2 April 2011}} The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management", while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters.{{sfn|Smelt|Jui Lin|2009|p=33}}{{cite web |title=Glossary |url=http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/lgip.nsf/wpgurl/Resources-Glossary-Index |publisher=Department of Internal Affairs |access-date=28 August 2016 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709203038/https://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/lgip.nsf/wpgurl/Resources-Glossary-Index |url-status=live }} Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.{{cite web |title=Chatham Islands Council Act 1995 No 41 |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1995/0041/latest/whole.html |date=29 July 1995 |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=8 August 2017 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808233555/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1995/0041/latest/whole.html |url-status=live }}

The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15 Commonwealth realms,{{cite book |last1=Gimpel |first1=Diane|title=Monarchies|date=2011 |publisher=ABDO Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-617-14792-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/monarchies0000gimp_v0v5/page/22 22] |url= https://archive.org/details/monarchies0000gimp_v0v5|url-access=registration |access-date=18 November 2016}} is the entire area over which the king or queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands, and Niue. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.{{cite web |url= http://www.gov.nu/wb/pages/system-of-government-fakatokaaga-he-fakatufono.php |title=System of Government |publisher=Government of Niue |access-date=13 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101113024046/http://www.gov.nu/wb/pages/system-of-government-fakatokaaga-he-fakatufono.php |archive-date=13 November 2010}}{{cite web |publisher=Government of the Cook Islands |title=Government – Structure, Personnel |url=http://www.ck/govt.htm#con |access-date=13 January 2010 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120200425/http://www.ck/govt.htm#con |url-status=live }} The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).{{cite web |title=Tokelau Government |url=http://www.tokelau.org.nz/Tokelau+Government.html |publisher=Government of Tokelau |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=13 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113221641/http://www.tokelau.org.nz/Tokelau+Government.html |url-status=live }} The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.{{cite web |title=Scott Base |url=http://www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/scott-base |publisher=Antarctica New Zealand |access-date=13 January 2010 |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329071421/https://www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/scott-base |url-status=live }} New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.{{cite web |title=Citizenship Act 1977 No 61 |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1977/0061/latest/whole.html |publisher=Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=26 May 2017 |date=1 December 1977 |archive-date=25 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225182504/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1977/0061/latest/whole.html |url-status=live }}{{Refn|A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. All persons born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).{{cite web |url= http://www.dia.govt.nz/diawebsite.nsf/wpg_URL/Services-Citizenship-Check-if-you're-a-New-Zealand-citizen?OpenDocument |title=Check if you're a New Zealand citizen |publisher=Department of Internal Affairs |access-date=20 January 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140923112222/http://www.dia.govt.nz/diawebsite.nsf/wpg_URL/Services-Citizenship-Check-if-you%E2%80%99re-a-New-Zealand-citizen?OpenDocument |url-status=live}}|group=n}}

{{Main|Foreign relations of New Zealand}}

File:P20220531AS-0492-2 (52245764500).jpg with US president Joe Biden in the Oval Office, 2022]]

During the period of the New Zealand colony, Britain was responsible for external trade and foreign relations.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=External Relations |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/history-constitutional/10 |access-date=7 January 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120154326/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/history-constitutional/10 |url-status=live }} The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties, and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand".{{cite web |title=Michael Joseph Savage |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/michael-joseph-savage-biography |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=July 2010 |access-date=29 January 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927012124/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/michael-joseph-savage-biography |url-status=live }}File:E 003261 E Maoris in North Africa July 1941.jpg haka in Egypt, 1941|alt=A squad of men kneel in the desert sand while performing a war dance]]

In 1951, the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,{{cite web |url= http://www.victoria.ac.nz/css/docs/Working_Papers/WP21.pdf |title=Globalisation, Sovereignty, and the Transformation of New Zealand Foreign Policy |first=Robert |last=Patman |access-date=12 March 2007 |work=Working Paper 21/05 |publisher=Centre for Strategic Studies, Victoria University of Wellington |page=8 |date=2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070925192858/http://www.victoria.ac.nz/css/docs/Working_Papers/WP21.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2007}} while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.{{cite web |url= http://www.australianpolitics.com/foreign/anzus/anzus-treaty.shtml |title=Department of External Affairs: Security Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America |date=September 1951 |publisher=Australian Government |access-date=11 January 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110629153135/http://www.australianpolitics.com/foreign/anzus/anzus-treaty.shtml |archive-date=29 June 2011}} The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,{{cite web |title=The Vietnam War |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/vietnam-war |work=New Zealand History |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=June 2008 |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=8 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108004233/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/vietnam-war |url-status=live }} the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,{{cite web |title=Sinking the Rainbow Warrior – nuclear-free New Zealand |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/nuclear-free-new-zealand/rainbow-warrior |work=New Zealand History |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=August 2008 |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=19 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019073147/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/nuclear-free-new-zealand/rainbow-warrior |url-status=live }} disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.{{cite web |title=Nuclear-free legislation – nuclear-free New Zealand |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/nuclear-free-new-zealand/nuclear-free-zone |work=New Zealand History |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=August 2008 |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103231157/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/nuclear-free-new-zealand/nuclear-free-zone |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |last=Lange |first=David |author-link=David Lange |title=Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1990 |isbn=0-14-014519-2}} Despite the United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.{{cite web |title=Australia in brief |url= http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/history.html |publisher=Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=11 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101222174922/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/history.html |archive-date=22 December 2010}} Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.{{cite web |title=New Zealand country brief |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new_zealand/nz_country_brief.html |publisher=Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012052030/http://dfat.gov.au/geo/new_zealand/nz_country_brief.html |url-status=dead }} {{As of|2013|alt=In 2013}} there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand.{{cite news |first=John |last=Collett |url=http://www.smh.com.au/money/super-and-funds/kiwis-face-hurdles-in-pursuit-of-lost-funds-20130903-2t1jl.html#ixzz2glaaulCe |title=Kiwis face hurdles in pursuit of lost funds |date=4 September 2013 |access-date=4 October 2013 |archive-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906141233/http://www.smh.com.au/money/super-and-funds/kiwis-face-hurdles-in-pursuit-of-lost-funds-20130903-2t1jl.html#ixzz2glaaulCe |url-status=live }}

New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries, and enjoys strong diplomatic relations with Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga, and among smaller nations.{{Cite journal |last=Mark |first=Simon |date=11 January 2021 |title=New Zealand's public diplomacy in the Pacific: a reset, or more of the same? |url=https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-020-00196-x |journal=Place Branding and Public Diplomacy |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=105–112 |language=en |doi=10.1057/s41254-020-00196-x |issn=1751-8059 |pmc=7798375 |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=21 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221023732/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s41254-020-00196-x |url-status=live }} A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries, and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. The increase of this since the 1960s led to the formation of the Pasifika New Zealander pan-ethnic group, the fourth-largest ethnic grouping in the country.{{cite book |first=Geoff |last=Bertram |chapter=South Pacific economic relations – Aid, remittances and tourism |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/south-pacific-economic-relations/4 |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120045222/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/south-pacific-economic-relations/4 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |date=23 September 2019 |title=2018 Census population and dwelling counts |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-population-and-dwelling-counts |access-date=2 June 2022 |website=www.stats.govt.nz |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |at=§ Ethnicity |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307170544/https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-population-and-dwelling-counts/ |url-status=live }} Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007, and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.{{cite web |url=http://devpolicy.org/making-migration-work-lessons-from-new-zealand/ |title=Making migration work: Lessons from New Zealand |first=Stephen |last=Howes |date=November 2010 |access-date=23 March 2011 |publisher=Development Policy Centre |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094422/http://devpolicy.org/making-migration-work-lessons-from-new-zealand/ |url-status=live }} New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit). New Zealand has been described as a middle power in the Asia-Pacific region,{{Cite web |last=Institute |first=Lowy |title=New Zealand – Lowy Institute Asia Power Index |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/countries/new-zealand/ |access-date=7 March 2022 |website=Lowy Institute Asia Power Index 2021 |language=en |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401102321/https://power.lowyinstitute.org/countries/new-zealand/ |url-status=live }} and an emerging power.{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/113097493/caught-between-china-and-the-us-the-kiwi-place-in-a-newly-confrontational-world|title=Caught between China and the US: The Kiwi place in a newly confrontational world|work=Stuff.co.nz|date=7 June 2019|access-date=1 May 2020|archive-date=5 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705073500/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/113097493/caught-between-china-and-the-us-the-kiwi-place-in-a-newly-confrontational-world|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.waikato.ac.nz/news-opinion/media/2018/new-zealands-pacific-reset-strategic-anxieties-about-rising-china |last=Steff |first=Reuben |title=New Zealand's Pacific reset: strategic anxieties about rising China |date=5 June 2018 |publisher=University of Waikato |access-date=1 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201134141/https://www.waikato.ac.nz/news-opinion/media/2018/new-zealands-pacific-reset-strategic-anxieties-about-rising-china |url-status=live }} The country is a member of the United Nations,{{cite web |title=Member States of the United Nations |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml#n |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230101646/http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml#n |url-status=live }} the Commonwealth of Nations{{cite web |title=New Zealand |date=15 August 2013 |url=http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/new-zealand |publisher=The Commonwealth |access-date=1 December 2016 |archive-date=1 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201213512/http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/new-zealand |url-status=live }} and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),{{cite web |title=Members and partners |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url=http://www.oecd.org/pages/0,3417,en_36734052_36761800_1_1_1_1_1,00.html |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=8 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408175139/http://www.oecd.org/pages/0,3417,en_36734052_36761800_1_1_1_1_1,00.html |url-status=live }} and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements.{{cite web |title=The Future of the Five Power Defence Arrangements |url=https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-future-of-the-five-power-defence-arrangements/ |work=The Strategist |publisher=Australian Strategic Policy Institute |access-date=1 December 2016 |date=8 November 2012 |archive-date=2 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202165604/https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-future-of-the-five-power-defence-arrangements/ |url-status=live }}

Today, New Zealand enjoys particularly close relations with the United States and is one of its major non-NATO allies,{{cite web |title=22 USC § 2321k – Designation of major non-NATO allies |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/22/2321k |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917033707/http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/22/2321k |archive-date=17 September 2012 |access-date=14 September 2012 |work=law.cornell.edu |publisher=Legal Information Institute}} as well as with Australia, with a "Trans-Tasman" identity between citizens of the latter being common.{{cite journal |last1=Lynch |first1=Brian |date=2009 |title=THE TRANS-TASMAN WORLD: towards a closer understanding |journal=New Zealand International Review |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=25–27 |jstor=45235895}} New Zealand is a member of the Five Eyes intelligence sharing agreement, known formally as the UKUSA Agreement. The five members of this agreement compromise the core Anglosphere: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dni.gov/index.php/who-we-are/organizations/enterprise-capacity/chco/chco-related-menus/chco-related-links/recruitment-and-outreach/217-about/organization/icig-pages/2660-icig-fiorc|title=Five Eyes Intelligence Oversight and Review Council (FIORC)|website=www.dni.gov|access-date=12 September 2022|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121051724/https://www.dni.gov/index.php/who-we-are/organizations/enterprise-capacity/chco/chco-related-menus/chco-related-links/recruitment-and-outreach/217-about/organization/icig-pages/2660-icig-fiorc|url-status=live}} Since 2012, New Zealand has had a partnership arrangement with NATO under the Partnership Interoperability Initiative.{{cite web |title=Relations with New Zealand |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52347.htm |website=NATO |access-date=3 April 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403040803/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52347.htm |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Partnership arrangement signed with NATO |url=https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/partnership-arrangement-signed-nato |website=Beehive.co.nz |publisher=NZ Govt |access-date=3 April 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403032257/https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/partnership-arrangement-signed-nato |url-status=live }}{{cite news |last1=Scotcher |first1=Katie |title=New Zealand's relationship to Nato is getting stronger, expert says |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/new-zealands-relationship-to-nato-is-getting-stronger-expert-says/46LJXVTY4REX3OE6DGLADS54DA/ |access-date=3 April 2023 |work=New Zealand Herald |date=3 April 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403002140/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/new-zealands-relationship-to-nato-is-getting-stronger-expert-says/46LJXVTY4REX3OE6DGLADS54DA/ |url-status=live }} According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, New Zealand is the 4th most peaceful country in the world.{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |publisher=Institute for Economics & Peace |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |date=2024 |access-date=26 August 2024 |archive-date=19 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240819091540/https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Main|New Zealand Defence Force}}

File:ANZAC Day service at the National War Memorial - Flickr - NZ Defence Force (20).jpg service at the National War Memorial|alt=A soldier in a green army uniform faces forwards]]

New Zealand's military services—the New Zealand Defence Force—comprise the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the Royal New Zealand Navy.{{cite web |url=http://www.nzdf.mil.nz/about-us/ |title=About Us: Role and Responsibilities |publisher=New Zealand Defence Force |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208065250/http://www.nzdf.mil.nz/about-us/ |url-status=live }} New Zealand's national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely.{{cite book |chapter=New Zealand Defence and Security Policy, 1990–2005 |last=Ayson |first=Robert |title=New Zealand in World Affairs |volume=IV: 1990–2005 |editor-first=Roderic |editor-last=Alley |publisher=Victoria University Press |date=2007 |page=132 |isbn=978-0-86473-548-5 |location=Wellington}} However, its military has had a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete,{{cite web |title=The Battle for Crete |date=May 2010 |work=New Zealand History |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-battle-for-crete |access-date=9 January 2011 |archive-date=21 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421053546/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-battle-for-crete |url-status=live }} El Alamein,{{cite web |title=El Alamein – The North African Campaign |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-north-african-campaign/el-alamein |work=New Zealand History |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=May 2009 |access-date=9 January 2011 |archive-date=4 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104033125/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-north-african-campaign/el-alamein |url-status=live }} and Cassino.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/battle_cassino_01.shtml |title=World War Two: The Battle of Monte Cassino |first=Richard |last=Holmes |author-link=Richard Holmes (military historian) |date=September 2010 |access-date=9 January 2011 |archive-date=28 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128111552/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/battle_cassino_01.shtml |url-status=live }} The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity{{cite news |title=Gallipoli stirred new sense of national identity says Clark |date=April 2005 |work=The New Zealand Herald |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10122323 |access-date=9 January 2011 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429191517/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10122323 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |title=Battlefield Tourism: History, Place and Interpretation |first=Bruce |last=Prideaux |editor-first=Chris |editor-last=Ryan |page=18 |date=2007 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-08-045362-0}} and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia.{{cite web |title=The Spirit of ANZAC |first=Arthur |last=Burke |url= http://www.anzacday.org.au/spirit/spirit2.html |publisher=ANZAC Day Commemoration Committee |access-date=11 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101226110037/http://www.anzacday.org.au/spirit/spirit2.html |archive-date=26 December 2010}}

In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War,{{cite web |title=South African War 1899–1902 |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-south-african-boer-war/introduction |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=February 2009 |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=3 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103233154/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-south-african-boer-war/introduction |url-status=live }} the Korean War,{{cite web |title=New Zealand in the Korean War |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/korean-war |work=New Zealand History |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=1 December 2016 |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509024958/https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/korean-war |url-status=live }} the Malayan Emergency,{{cite web |title=NZ and the Malayan Emergency |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-malayan-emergency |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=August 2010 |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-date=3 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103225453/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-malayan-emergency |url-status=live }} the Gulf War, and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands.{{cite web |url=http://www.nzdf.mil.nz/operations/default.htm |title=New Zealand Defence Force Overseas Operations |publisher=New Zealand Defence Force |access-date=17 February 2008 |date=January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125104529/http://www.nzdf.mil.nz/operations/default.htm |archive-date=25 January 2008}}

{{Main|Economy of New Zealand}}

{{See also|List of companies of New Zealand}}

File:Auckland Waterfrt.jpg along Auckland CBD, a major hub of economic activity|alt=Boats docked in blue-green water. Plate glass skyscrapers rising up in the background.]]

New Zealand has an advanced market economy,{{cite book |title=World Economic Outlook |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2018/03/20/~/media/Files/Publications/WEO/2018/April/text.ashx?la=en |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=21 June 2018 |page=63 |date=April 2018 |isbn=978-1-48434-971-7 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232050/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2018/03/20/~/media/Files/Publications/WEO/2018/April/text.ashx?la=en |url-status=live }} ranked 16th in the {{As of|2022|alt=2022}} Human Development Index,{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/NZL |title=Specific country data |last=Nations |first=United |publisher=United Nations |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2022 |access-date=14 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812054834/https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/NZL |url-status=live }} and fourth in the {{As of|2022|alt=2022}} Index of Economic Freedom.{{cite web |title=Country rankings |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |date=2022 |website=Index of Economic Freedom |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=14 August 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521231822/https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |url-status=unfit }} It has a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$36,254.{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/weo-report?c=193,122,124,156,423,935,128,939,172,132,134,174,532,176,178,436,136,158,542,941,946,137,546,181,138,196,142,182,359,135,576,936,961,184,144,146,528,112,111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LUR,LE,&sy=2018&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2020 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026132152/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/weo-report?c=193,122,124,156,423,935,128,939,172,132,134,174,532,176,178,436,136,158,542,941,946,137,546,181,138,196,142,182,359,135,576,936,961,184,144,146,528,112,111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LUR,LE,&sy=2018&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }} The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.{{cite web |url=http://www.bsi.si/en/financial-data.asp?MapaId=1239 |title=Currencies of the territories listed in the BS exchange rate lists |publisher=Bank of Slovenia |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404213432/https://www.bsi.si/en/financial-data.asp?MapaId=1239 |url-status=live }}

Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focusing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/trade-external/1 |title=Historical evolution and trade patterns |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |access-date=10 February 2011 |date=November 2009 |orig-year=1966 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404182546/https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/trade-external/1 |url-status=live }} The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.{{cite book |first1=Hugh |last1=Stringleman |first2=Robert |last2=Peden |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sheep-farming/5/2 |chapter=Sheep farming – Growth of the frozen meat trade, 1882–2001 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=October 2009 |access-date=6 May 2010 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120164540/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sheep-farming/5/2 |url-status=live }} High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Some Indicators of Comparative Living Standards |first=John |last=Baker |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/standard-of-living/1/1 |access-date=30 April 2010 |date=February 2010 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120044909/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/standard-of-living/1/1 |url-status=live }}

[http://www.teara.govt.nz/files/3_308_StandardOfLiving_Comparison_0.pdf PDF Table] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725204827/https://teara.govt.nz/files/3_308_StandardOfLiving_Comparison_0.pdf |date=25 July 2023 }} In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |chapter=History – The later 20th century |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/6 |access-date=2 February 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117014756/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/6 |url-status=live }} and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression.{{cite book |first1=Chris |first2=John |last2=Yeabsley |chapter=Overseas trade policy – Difficult times – the 1970s and early 1980s |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/overseas-trade-policy/5 |access-date=22 January 2011 |last1=Nixon |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120164742/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/overseas-trade-policy/5 |url-status=live }} Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.{{cite magazine |last=Evans |first=N. R. |title=Up from Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies |date=January 1994 |magazine=National Review |volume=46 |issue=16 |pages=47–51}} In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period.{{cite book |title=Trade, Food Security, and Human Rights: The Rules for International Trade in Agricultural Products and the Evolving World Food Crisis |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317008521 |page=125}}{{cite news |first=Wayne |last=Arnold |title=Surviving Without Subsidies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/02/business/worldbusiness/02farm.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |date=2 August 2007 |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605034715/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/02/business/worldbusiness/02farm.html?pagewanted=all |url-status=live }} Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protectionist and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Easton |chapter=Economic history – Government and market liberalisation |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/11 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120174826/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/11 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |title=Taking New Zealand Seriously: The Economics of Decency |first=Tim |last=Hazledine |publisher=HarperCollins |url= http://www.ariplex.com/~economic-myth-busters/hazledine-taking%20nz%20seriously.pdf |isbn=1-86950-283-3 |date=1998 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110510082643/http://www.ariplex.com/~economic-myth-busters/hazledine-taking%20nz%20seriously.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2011}} New Zealand's gold production in 2015 was 12 tonnes.{{Cite web |title=Gold production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129233804/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live }}

File:MilfordSound.jpg is one of New Zealand's most famous tourist destinations.{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/396410 |title=NZ tops Travellers' Choice Awards |work=Stuff |date=May 2008 |access-date=30 April 2010 |archive-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403041729/http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/396410 |url-status=live }}|alt=Blue water against a backdrop of snow-capped mountains]]

Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992,{{cite web |url=http://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz/paid-work/unemployment.html |title=Unemployment: the Social Report 2016 – Te pūrongo oranga tangata |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Social Development |access-date=18 August 2017 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420221647/https://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz/paid-work/unemployment.html |url-status=live }} following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major effect on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/business/global/11nzrate.html |title=New Zealand Takes a Pause in Cutting Rates |date=10 June 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=30 April 2010 |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613022326/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/business/global/11nzrate.html |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8120196.stm |title=New Zealand's slump longest ever |date=26 June 2009 |work=BBC News |access-date=30 April 2010 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612224309/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8120196.stm |url-status=live }} and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.{{cite web |title=Household Labour Force Survey: December 2010 quarter – Media Release |url= http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/work_income_and_spending/employment_and_unemployment/HouseholdLabourForceSurvey_MRDec10qtr.aspx |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110429174323/http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/work_income_and_spending/employment_and_unemployment/HouseholdLabourForceSurvey_MRDec10qtr.aspx |archive-date=29 April 2011 |first=Geoff |last=Bascand |date=February 2011 |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=4 February 2011}} The lowest unemployment rate recorded using the current methodology was in December 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, at 3.2%.{{cite web |last1=Pullar-Strecker |first1=Tom |title=NZ unemployment expected to remain near record low despite chill wind |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/131079395/nz-unemployment-expected-to-remain-near-record-low-despite-chill-wind |website=Stuff |access-date=12 March 2024 |date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312084832/https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/131079395/nz-unemployment-expected-to-remain-near-record-low-despite-chill-wind |url-status=live }} Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. During the September 2021 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 3.2%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 24 was 9.2%.{{cite web |title=Youth unemployment rate three times national average {{!}} Stats NZ |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/youth-unemployment-rate-three-times-national-average |website=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=12 March 2024 |date=2 December 2021 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312084831/https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/youth-unemployment-rate-three-times-national-average |url-status=live }} New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s{{cite journal |last=Davenport |first=Sally |title=Panic and panacea: Brain drain and science and technology human capital policy |journal=Research Policy |volume=33 |date=2004 |issue=4 |pages=617–630 |doi=10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.006}} that still continue today.{{cite news |first=Sean |last=O'Hare |title=New Zealand brain-drain worst in world |date=September 2010 |work=The Daily Telegraph |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7973220/New-Zealand-brain-drain-worst-in-world.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7973220/New-Zealand-brain-drain-worst-in-world.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}} Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.{{cite news |title=Quarter of NZ's brightest are gone |first=Simon |last=Collins |date=March 2005 |work=The New Zealand Herald |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10114923 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602205357/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10114923 |url-status=live }} In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.{{Cite journal |last=Winkelmann |first=Rainer |title=The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s |date=2000 |journal=The International Migration Review |volume=33 |pages=33–58 |doi=10.2307/2676011 |jstor=2676011 |issue=1 |publisher=The Center for Migration Studies of New York}} Journal subscription required{{sfn|Bain|2006|p=44}} Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation.{{cite web |title=GII 2016 Report |publisher=Global Innovation Index |url=https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/userfiles/file/reportpdf/gii-full-report-2016-v1.pdf |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=30 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730160631/https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/ |url-status=live }}

Poverty in New Zealand is characterised by growing income inequality; wealth in New Zealand is highly concentrated,{{cite web |title=Income inequality |url=http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/snapshots-of-nz/nz-progress-indicators/Home/Social/income-inequality.aspx |website=NZ Progress Indicators |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731201824/http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/snapshots-of-nz/nz-progress-indicators/Home/Social/income-inequality.aspx |archive-date=31 July 2020}} with the top 1% of the population owning 16% of the country's wealth, and the richest 5% owning 38%, leaving a stark contrast where half the population, including state beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $24,000.{{cite news |last1=Pearl |first1=Harry |title=NZ income gap at crisis level – author |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/9182609/NZ-income-gap-at-crisis-level-author |access-date=24 July 2023 |work=Stuff |date=18 September 2013 |language=en |archive-date=23 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723124153/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/9182609/NZ-income-gap-at-crisis-level-author |url-status=live }} Moreover, child poverty in New Zealand has been identified by the Government as a major societal issue;{{Cite news |date=13 October 2020 |title=NZ election: The people left behind in Ardern's 'kind' New Zealand |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54444643 |access-date=27 August 2021 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027120812/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54444643 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Reducing child poverty |url=https://www.dpmc.govt.nz/our-programmes/reducing-child-poverty |website=www.dpmc.govt.nz |publisher=Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (DPMC) |access-date=24 July 2023 |language=en |date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=23 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723122311/https://www.dpmc.govt.nz/our-programmes/reducing-child-poverty |url-status=live }} the country has 12.0% of children living in low-income households that have less than 50% of the median equivalised disposable household income {{as of|June 2022|lc=on}}.{{Cite web |title=Child poverty statistics show no annual change in the year ended June 2022 {{!}} Stats NZ |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/child-poverty-statistics-show-no-annual-change-in-the-year-ended-june-2022 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=www.stats.govt.nz |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529125041/https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/child-poverty-statistics-show-no-annual-change-in-the-year-ended-june-2022 |url-status=live }} Poverty has a disproportionately high effect in ethnic-minority households, with a quarter (23.3%) of Māori children and almost a third (28.6%) of Pacific Islander children living in poverty {{as of|2020|lc=on}}.

New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,{{cite web |first=Tim |last=Groser |date=March 2009 |title=Speech to ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement Seminars |url=http://www.beehive.govt.nz/speech/speech-asean-australia-new-zealand-free-trade-agreement-seminars |publisher=New Zealand Government |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-date=10 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710061833/https://www.beehive.govt.nz/speech/speech-asean-australia-new-zealand-free-trade-agreement-seminars |url-status=live }} particularly in agricultural products.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/NZ-and-the-WTO/Improving-access-to-markets/0-agriculturenegs.php |title=Improving Access to Markets:Agriculture |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208075407/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/NZ-and-the-WTO/Improving-access-to-markets/0-agriculturenegs.php |url-status=dead }} Exports account for 24% of its output, making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).{{cite web |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/infoshare |title=Standard International Trade Classification R4 – Exports (Annual-Jun) |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |date=April 2015 |access-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408082252/http://www.stats.govt.nz/infoshare/ |url-status=live }} New Zealand's main trading partners, {{as of|June 2018|alt=as at June 2018}}, are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).{{cite web |title= Goods and services trade by country: Year ended June 2018 – corrected |url= https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/goods-and-services-trade-by-country-year-ended-june-2018 |publisher= Statistics New Zealand |access-date= 17 February 2019 |archive-date= 31 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220331190732/https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/goods-and-services-trade-by-country-year-ended-june-2018 |url-status= live }} On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.{{cite news|title=China and New Zealand sign free trade deal|date=April 2008|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/07/business/worldbusiness/07iht-7tradefw.11718461.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=22 February 2017|archive-date=3 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403041332/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/07/business/worldbusiness/07iht-7tradefw.11718461.html|url-status=live}} In July 2023, New Zealand and the European Union entered into the EU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement, which eliminated tariffs on several goods traded between the two regions.{{cite web |title=EU and New Zealand sign ambitious free trade agreement |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_23_3715/IP_23_3715_EN.pdf |website=European Commission |access-date=17 October 2023 |archive-date=19 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019000716/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_23_3715/IP_23_3715_EN.pdf |url-status=live }} This free trade agreement expanded on the pre-existing free trade agreement{{cite web |last1=Ardern |first1=Jacinda |last2=O'Connor |first2=Damien |title=New Zealand secures major free trade deal with European Union |url=https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-zealand-secures-major-free-trade-deal-european-union |website=beehive.govt.nz |access-date=17 October 2023 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410010028/https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-zealand-secures-major-free-trade-deal-european-union |url-status=live }} and saw a reduction in tariffs on meat and dairy{{cite web |title=Key points from New Zealand's free trade agreement with the EU |url=https://my.nzte.govt.nz/article/eu-nz-fta-negotiations-concluded |website=myNZTE |access-date=17 October 2023 |archive-date=19 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019000715/https://my.nzte.govt.nz/article/eu-nz-fta-negotiations-concluded |url-status=live }} in response to feedback from the affected industries.{{cite news |last1=Gray |first1=Jamie |title=Primary sector gives its verdict on NZ-EU Free Trade Agreement |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/primary-sector-gives-its-verdict-on-nz-eu-free-trade-agreement/ |access-date=17 October 2023 |work=nzherald |agency=NZME |date=1 July 2022 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.{{cite web |title=New Zealand |work=The World Factbook |date=25 February 2021 |publisher=US Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-zealand/ |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109223000/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-zealand/ |url-status=live }} Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.{{cite web |title=Key Tourism Statistics |url= http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/tourism/documents-image-library/key-tourism-statistics.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment |access-date=26 April 2017 |date=26 April 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170427004444/http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/tourism/documents-image-library/key-tourism-statistics.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2017 |url-status=dead}} In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.

File:Fauna de Nueva Zelanda07.JPG

Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century. Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues, but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities,{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Easton |chapter=Economy – Agricultural production |date=March 2009 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economy/2 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=28 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128144722/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/economy/2 |url-status=live }} and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.{{cite book |first1=Hugh |last1=Stringleman |first2=Robert |last2=Peden |chapter=Sheep farming – Changes from the 20th century |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sheep-farming/7 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120154339/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/sheep-farming/7 |url-status=live }} In contrast, dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,{{cite book |first1=Hugh |last1=Stringleman |first2=Frank |last2=Scrimgeour |chapter=Dairying and dairy products – Dairying in the 2000s |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairying-and-dairy-products/10 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120174330/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairying-and-dairy-products/10 |url-status=live }} to become New Zealand's largest export earner.{{cite book |first1=Hugh |last1=Stringleman |first2=Frank |last2=Scrimgeour |chapter=Dairying and dairy products – Dairy exports |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairying-and-dairy-products/11 |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-date=14 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114071611/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairying-and-dairy-products/11 |url-status=live }} In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports, and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.{{cite book |first1=Hugh |last1=Stringleman |first2=Frank |last2=Scrimgeour |chapter=Dairying and dairy products – Manufacturing and marketing in the 2000s |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairying-and-dairy-products/12 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120175347/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairying-and-dairy-products/12 |url-status=live }} Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%). New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,{{cite book |first=Bronwyn |last=Dalley |chapter=Wine – The wine boom, 1980s and beyond |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/wine/6 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120153949/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/wine/6 |url-status=live }} overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.{{cite news|title=Wine in New Zealand|newspaper=The Economist|date=27 March 2008|url=http://www.economist.com/node/10926423|access-date=29 April 2017|archive-date=21 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021054420/http://www.economist.com/node/10926423|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url= http://www.maf.govt.nz/news-resources/statistics-forecasting/international-trade.aspx |title=Agricultural and forestry exports from New Zealand: Primary sector export values for the year ending June 2010 |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry |date=14 January 2011 |access-date=8 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110510042204/http://www.maf.govt.nz/news-resources/statistics-forecasting/international-trade.aspx |archive-date=10 May 2011}}

In 2015, renewable energy generated 40.1% of New Zealand's gross energy supply.{{cite report |title=Energy in New Zealand 2016 |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment |date=September 2016 |issn=2324-5913 |page=47 |url= http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/energy/energy-data-modelling/publications/energy-in-new-zealand/energy-in-nz-2016.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170503234030/http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/energy/energy-data-modelling/publications/energy-in-new-zealand/energy-in-nz-2016.pdf |archive-date=3 May 2017}} The majority of the country's electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power, with major schemes on the Waikato, Waitaki and Clutha / Mata-Au rivers, as well as at Manapouri. Geothermal power is also a significant generator of electricity, with several large stations located across the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island. The four main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy, Genesis Energy, Mercury Energy and Meridian Energy. State-owned Transpower operates the high-voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands, as well as the Inter-Island HVDC link connecting the two together.

The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.{{cite web |title=Appendix 1: Technical information about drinking water supply in the eight local authorities |url=http://www.oag.govt.nz/2010/water/part1.htm |publisher=Office of the Auditor-General |access-date=2 September 2016 |archive-date=17 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917025934/http://www.oag.govt.nz/2010/water/part1.htm |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Water supply |url=http://www.gw.govt.nz/water/ |publisher=Greater Wellington Regional Council |access-date=2 September 2016 |archive-date=1 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901015232/http://www.gw.govt.nz/water |url-status=live }}

File:Air New Zealand, Boeing 787-9 ZK-NZE 'All Blacks' NRT (27091961041).jpg of Air New Zealand, the flag carrier of New Zealand|alt=A mid-size jet airliner in flight. The plane livery is all-black and features a New Zealand silver fern mark.]]

New Zealand's transport network comprises {{convert|94000|km|mi|-1}} of roads, including {{convert|199|km|mi|0}} of motorways,{{cite web |title=State highway frequently asked questions |url=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/roads-and-rail/research-and-data/state-highway-frequently-asked-questions/ |publisher=NZ Transport Agency |access-date=28 April 2017 |archive-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507225945/https://www.nzta.govt.nz/roads-and-rail/research-and-data/state-highway-frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live }} and {{convert|4128|km|mi|0}} of railway lines. Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.{{cite book |first=Adrian |last=Humphris |chapter=Public transport – Passenger trends |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/public-transport/8 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120183655/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/public-transport/8 |url-status=live }} The railways were privatised in 1993 but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington, which are operated by Auckland One Rail and Transdev Wellington respectively.{{cite book |first=Neill |last=Atkinson |chapter=Railways – Rail transformed |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/railways/11 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120195420/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/railways/11 |url-status=live }} Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.{{cite book |first=Neill |last=Atkinson |chapter=Railways – Freight transport |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/railways/6 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013535/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/railways/6 |url-status=live }} The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked by roll-on/roll-off ferries between Wellington and Picton, operated by Interislander (part of KiwiRail) and Bluebridge. Most international visitors arrive via air.{{cite web|url=http://www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/Documents/International%20Market%20Profiles/Total%20Profile.pdf|title=International Visitors|date=June 2009|publisher=Ministry of Economic Development|access-date=30 January 2011|archive-date=16 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016173709/http://www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/Documents/International%20Market%20Profiles/Total%20Profile.pdf|url-status=live}} New Zealand has four international airports: Auckland, Christchurch, Queenstown and Wellington; however, only Auckland and Christchurch offer non-stop flights to countries other than Australia or Fiji.{{cite web |url= http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/MultipageDocumentPage____9038.aspx#P5641_412038 |publisher=Ministry of Economic Development |work=Infrastructure Stocktake: Infrastructure Audit |title=10. Airports |date=December 2005 |access-date=30 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100522203825/http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/MultipageDocumentPage____9038.aspx |archive-date=22 May 2010}}

The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications in New Zealand until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=A. C. |chapter=Telecommunications – Telecom |chapter-url=https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/telecommunications/page-6 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=11 August 2017 |date=March 2010 |archive-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811055436/https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/telecommunications/page-6 |url-status=live }} Chorus, which was split from Telecom (now Spark) in 2011,{{cite web |title=Telecom separation |url= http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/communications/previous-reviews-and-consultations/telecom-separation |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment |access-date=11 August 2017 |date=14 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170811055739/http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/communications/previous-reviews-and-consultations/telecom-separation |archive-date=11 August 2017|url-status=dead}} still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. A large-scale rollout of gigabit-capable fibre to the premises, branded as Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022.{{cite web |url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/it-communications-and-broadband/fast-broadband/broadband-and-mobile-programmes/ |title=Broadband and mobile programmes |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment |work=MBIE.Govt.nz |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-date=19 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219134555/https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/it-communications-and-broadband/fast-broadband/broadband-and-mobile-programmes/ |url-status=live }} {{As of|2017}}, the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure.{{cite web |title=2017 Global ICT Development Index |url=http://www.itu.int/net4/ITU-D/idi/2017/ |publisher=International Telecommunication Union |access-date=18 September 2018 |date=2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920191221/http://www.itu.int/net4/ITU-D/idi/2017/ |url-status=live }}

Early indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Māori {{lang|mi|tohunga}} accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease.{{Cite journal|last=Voyce|first=Malcolm|date=1989|title=Maori Healers in New Zealand: The Tohunga Suppression Act 1907|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1989.tb02347.x|journal=Oceania|language=en|volume=60|issue=2|pages=99–123|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1989.tb02347.x|issn=1834-4461|access-date=6 April 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815154547/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1989.tb02347.x|url-status=live}} Cook's voyages in the 1700s and Darwin's in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Science – History and Organisation in New Zealand |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/science-history-and-organisation-in-new-zealand |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |access-date=14 April 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413030902/https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/science-history-and-organisation-in-new-zealand |url-status=live }} The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders including Ernest Rutherford for splitting the atom, William Pickering for rocket science, Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA, Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation, Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery, and Alan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers.{{cite web |last=Morton |first=Jamie |title=150 years of Kiwi science |work=The New Zealand Herald |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11830407 |date=5 April 2017 |access-date=14 April 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805050855/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11830407 |url-status=live }}

Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) were formed in 1992 from existing government-owned research organisations. Their role is to research and develop new science, knowledge, products and services across the economic, environmental, social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand.{{cite web |title=Crown Research Institutes |url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/science-and-innovation/agencies-policies-and-budget-initiatives/research-organisations/cri/ |work=MBIE.Govt.nz |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment |access-date=14 April 2020 |archive-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527110340/https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/science-and-innovation/agencies-policies-and-budget-initiatives/research-organisations/cri/ |url-status=live }} The total gross expenditure on research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP rose to 1.37% in 2018, up from 1.23% in 2015. New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R&D spending as a percentage of GDP.{{cite web |title=Research and development (R&D) – Gross domestic spending on R&D – OECD Data |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=14 April 2020 |date=2018 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114013730/https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |url-status=live }} New Zealand was ranked 25th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.{{Cite book |author=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2 |archive-date=10 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210002031/https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |url-status=live }}

The New Zealand Space Agency was created by the government in 2016 for space policy, regulation and sector development. Rocket Lab was the notable first commercial rocket launcher in the country.{{Cite web|url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/|title=New Zealand Space Agency | Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment|access-date=7 July 2023|archive-date=30 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530202333/https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/|url-status=live}}

The majority of private and commercial research organisations in New Zealand are focused on the agricultural and fisheries sectors. Examples include the Cawthron Institute, the Livestock Improvement Corporation, the Fonterra Research and Development Centre, the Bragato Research Institute, the Kiwifruit Breeding Centre, and B+LNZ Genetics.

{{Main|Demographics of New Zealand|List of cities in New Zealand}}

File:New Zealandpop.svg (2017)|alt=Stationary population pyramid broken down into 21 age ranges.]]

The 2023 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,993,923, an increase of 6.3% over the 2018 census figure. As of {{currentmonth}} {{currentyear}}, the total population has risen to an estimated 5,231,143.{{Cite web |title=New Zealand Population (2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/new-zealand-population/ |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=www.worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241214092100/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/new-zealand-population/ |url-status=live }} New Zealand's population increased at a rate of 1.9% per year in the seven years ended June 2020. In September 2020 Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019, according to population estimates based on the 2018 census.{{Cite press release |title=New Zealand's population nears 5.1 million |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/new-zealands-population-nears-5-1-million |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |date=22 September 2020 |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404072102/https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/new-zealands-population-nears-5-1-million |url-status=live }}{{refn|A provisional estimate initially indicated the milestone was reached six months later in March 2020, before population estimates were rebased from the 2013 census to the 2018 census.{{cite web |last=Pullar-Strecker |first=Tom |title=New Zealand population tops 5 million |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/121544285/new-zealand-population-tops-5-million |work=Stuff.co.nz |date=18 May 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020 |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212113142/https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/121544285/new-zealand-population-tops-5-million |url-status=live }}|group=n}}

New Zealand's population today is concentrated to the north of the country, with around {{Rnd|{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|North Island regions|y}}|R}}/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% of the population living in the North Island and {{Rnd|{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|South Island regions|y}}|R}}/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% in the South Island as of {{NZ population data 2018|3=y|4=}}.{{NZ population data 2018|4=y}} During the 20th century, New Zealand's population drifted north. In 1921, the country's median centre of population was located in the Tasman Sea west of Levin in Manawatū-Whanganui; by 2017, it had moved {{Convert|280|km|abbr=on}} north to near Kawhia in Waikato.{{Cite web|date=26 October 2017|title=Three in four New Zealanders live in the North Island {{!}} Stats NZ|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/three-in-four-new-zealanders-live-in-the-north-island|access-date=7 October 2021|website=www.stats.govt.nz|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007083615/https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/three-in-four-new-zealanders-live-in-the-north-island|url-status=live}}

New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with {{Decimals|({{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Major urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Large urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Medium urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Small urban area|y}}|R}})/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% of the population living in urban areas, and {{Decimals|{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Major urban area|y}}|R}}/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% of the population living in the seven cities with populations exceeding 100,000.{{NZ population data 2018||||y}} Auckland, with over 1.4 million residents, is by far the largest city. New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016, Auckland was ranked the world's third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.{{cite web |title=Quality of Living Ranking 2016 |date=23 February 2016 |publisher=Mercer |location=New York / London |url=https://www.mercer.com/newsroom/2016-quality-of-living-survey.html |access-date=28 April 2017 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019055720/https://www.mercer.com/newsroom/2016-quality-of-living-survey.html |url-status=live }}

The median age of the New Zealand population at the 2018 census was 37.4 years,{{Cite web|title=2018 Census place summaries {{!}} Stats NZ|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/tools/2018-census-place-summaries/new-zealand|access-date=9 September 2021|website=www.stats.govt.nz|archive-date=14 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114051053/https://www.stats.govt.nz/tools/2018-census-place-summaries/new-zealand|url-status=live}} with life expectancy in 2017–2019 being 80.0 years for males and 83.5 years for females.{{Cite web|title=National and subnational period life tables: 2017–2019 {{!}} Stats NZ|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/national-and-subnational-period-life-tables-2017-2019|access-date=9 September 2021|website=www.stats.govt.nz}} While New Zealand is experiencing sub-replacement fertility, with a total fertility rate of 1.6 in 2020, the fertility rate is above the OECD average.{{Cite web|last=de Jong|first=Eleanor|date=18 February 2021|title=New Zealand birthrate sinks to its lowest ever|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/18/new-zealand-birthrate-sinks-to-its-lowest-ever|url-status=live|access-date=9 September 2021|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910021458/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/18/new-zealand-birthrate-sinks-to-its-lowest-ever}}{{Cite web|title=Demography – Fertility rates – OECD Data|url=http://data.oecd.org/pop/fertility-rates.htm|access-date=9 September 2021|website=theOECD|language=en}} By 2050, the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.{{cite web|date=2009|title=World Population Prospects|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf|access-date=29 August 2009|publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|version=2008 revision}} In 2016 the leading cause of death was cancer at 30.3%, followed by ischaemic heart disease (14.9%) and cerebrovascular disease (7.4%).{{Cite web|title=Mortality 2016 data tables|url=https://www.health.govt.nz/publication/mortality-2016-data-tables|access-date=9 September 2021|website=Ministry of Health NZ|language=en}} {{As of|2016}}, total expenditure on health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.{{cite web |title=Health expenditure and financing |url= http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA |work=Stats.OECD.org |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=8 December 2017|date=2016}}

{{Largest cities of New Zealand}}

{{Main|New Zealanders|Immigration to New Zealand}}

File:Queen Street Midtown Auckland.jpg in Auckland, an ethnically diverse city|alt=Pedestrians crossing a wide street which is flanked by storefronts]]

In the 2023 census, a total of 67.8% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, with 54.1% identifying as European alone,{{Cite web |title=Stats NZ |url=https://explore.data.stats.govt.nz/vis?fs%5B0%5D=2023%2520Census%252C0%257CEthnicity%252C%2520culture%252C%2520and%2520identity%2523CAT_ETHNICITY_CULTURE_AND_IDENTITY%2523&pg=0&fc=2023%2520Census&bp=true&snb=40&df%5Bds%5D=ds-nsiws-disseminate&df%5Bid%5D=CEN23_ECI_008&df%5Bag%5D=STATSNZ&df%5Bvs%5D=1.0 |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=explore.data.stats.govt.nz}} and 17.8% as Māori, with 7.3% identifying as Māori alone. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (17.3% total, 15.7% alone) and Pacific peoples (8.9%, 5.5% alone).{{refn|name="ethnicity"|group=n}} {{Cite web |date=29 May 2024 |title=2023 Census population counts (by ethnic group, age, and Māori descent) and dwelling counts |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2023-census-population-counts-by-ethnic-group-age-and-maori-descent-and-dwelling-counts/ |access-date=29 May 2024 |website=Statistics New Zealand}} New Zealand has a large multiethnic population, with the largest mixed groups being European and Māori (8.2%), Māori and Pacific peoples (0.9%), and European and Asian (0.9%).{{Cite web |title=Stats NZ |url=https://explore.data.stats.govt.nz/vis?fs%5B0%5D=2023%2520Census%252C0%257CEthnicity%252C%2520culture%252C%2520and%2520identity%2523CAT_ETHNICITY_CULTURE_AND_IDENTITY%2523&pg=0&fc=2023%2520Census&bp=true&snb=40&df%5Bds%5D=ds-nsiws-disseminate&df%5Bid%5D=CEN23_ECI_008&df%5Bag%5D=STATSNZ&df%5Bvs%5D=1.0&dq=2013%252B2018%252B2023.9999%252B99999%252B999999.212%252B9999.99.99&ly%5Brw%5D=CEN23_GEO_002&ly%5Bcl%5D=CEN23_YEAR_001%252CCEN23_ETH_006&to%5BTIME%5D=false |access-date=2024-12-06 |website=explore.data.stats.govt.nz}} The population has become more multicultural and diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.{{cite book |last=Pool |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Pool |chapter=Population change – Key population trends |chapter-url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/graph/28720/new-zealand-population-by-ethnicity-1840-2006 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=18 August 2017|date=May 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170818220947/https://teara.govt.nz/en/graph/28720/new-zealand-population-by-ethnicity-1840-2006 |archive-date=18 August 2017 |url-status=dead}} However, New Zealand's non-European population is disproportionately concentrated in the North Island and especially in the Auckland region: while Auckland is home to 33% of New Zealand's population, it is home to 62% of the country's Pasifika population and 60% of its Asian population.

While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally{{cite journal |last=Dalby |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Dalby |title=The 'Kiwi disease': Geopolitical discourse in Aotearoa/New Zealand and the South Pacific |journal=Political Geography |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=437–456 |doi=10.1016/0962-6298(93)90012-V |date=September 1993}} and by locals.{{cite journal |first=Paul |last=Callister |title=Seeking an Ethnic Identity: Is 'New Zealander' a Valid Ethnic Category? |date=2004 |journal=New Zealand Population Review |volume=30 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=5–22 |url=http://panz.rsnz.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/nzpr-vol-30-1and-2_callister.pdf |access-date=18 January 2011 |archive-date=15 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515090608/http://panz.rsnz.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/nzpr-vol-30-1and-2_callister.pdf |url-status=dead }} The Māori loanword {{lang|mi|Pākehā}} has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this name. The word today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.{{cite web |url= http://maorinews.com/writings/papers/other/pakeha.htm |title='Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning |last=Ranford |first=Jodie |quote=Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today 'Pakeha' is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other. |access-date=20 February 2008 |work=Māori News}}

The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy.{{cite book |title=Trends in international migration: Continuous reporting system on migration |author=Socidad Peruana de Medicina Intensiva (SOPEMI) |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |date=2000 |pages=276–278}} There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,{{cite book |last=Walrond |first=Carl |chapter=Dalmatians |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=21 September 2007 |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dalmatians |access-date=30 April 2010}} German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.{{cite book |chapter=Peoples |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/peoples |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=2 June 2017|date=2005}}{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Jock |chapter=History of immigration |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history-of-immigration |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=2 June 2017 |date=11 August 2015}} Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies on immigration were relaxed, and immigration from Asia was promoted.{{cite journal |last1=Brawley |first1=Sean |title='No White Policy in NZ': Fact and Fiction in New Zealand's Asian Immigration Record, 1946–1978 |journal=New Zealand Journal of History |date=1993 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=33–36 |url=http://www.nzjh.auckland.ac.nz/docs/1993/NZJH_27_1_03.pdf |access-date=2 June 2017 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221530/http://www.nzjh.auckland.ac.nz/docs/1993/NZJH_27_1_03.pdf |url-status=dead }} In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.{{cite journal |title=International Migration Outlook: New Zealand 2009/10 |date=2010 |journal=OECD Continuous Reporting System on Migration (SOPEMI) |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url= http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/research/sopemi/2009-2010/imo-2009-2010.pdf |access-date=16 April 2011 |issn=1179-5085 |page=2 |via=New Zealand Department of Labour |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511071208/http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/research/sopemi/2009-2010/imo-2009-2010.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2011}} In the 2018 census, 27.4% of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2% in the 2013 census. Over half (52.4%) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lives in the Auckland Region.{{cite web |url= http://nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz/wbos/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TABLECODE8279|title=Birthplace (detailed), for the census usually resident population count, 2006, 2013, and 2018 Censuses (RC, TA, SA2, DHB) |work=nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=22 July 2020}} The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's immigrant population, with around a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.{{cite web |title=2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights |url= https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=22 July 2020 |date=23 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190923102431/https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights |url-status=dead}} The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.{{cite journal |first1=Andrew |last1=Butcher |first2=Terry |last2=McGrath |title=International Students in New Zealand: Needs and Responses |date=2004 |journal=International Education Journal |volume=5 |issue=4 |url= http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v5n4/butcher/paper.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120309072621/http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v5n4/butcher/paper.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2012 |access-date=19 January 2011}}

{{Main|Languages of New Zealand}}

File:TeReoMaori2013.png |isbn=978-0-478-40864-5}}

{{legend|#fef0d9|Less than 5%}}

{{legend|#fdd8a4|More than 5%}}

{{legend|#fcb779|More than 10%}}

{{legend|#fc8d59|More than 20%}}

{{legend|#eb603f|More than 30%}}

{{legend|#d33121|More than 40%}}

{{legend|#a50c0c|More than 50%}}]]

English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 95.4% of the population.{{cite web |title=Quick stats about ethnicity for New Zealand (2018 Census) |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/tools/2018-census-place-summaries/new-zealand#ethnicity |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114051053/https://www.stats.govt.nz/tools/2018-census-place-summaries/new-zealand#religion |archive-date=14 November 2023 |access-date=14 November 2023 |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |at=Source: Stats NZ and licensed by Stats NZ for reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence.}} New Zealand English is a variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon.{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Bardsley|first1=Dianne|title=English language in New Zealand – Characteristics of New Zealand English |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/english-language-in-new-zealand/page-1 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=11 November 2021 |date=7 October 2018}} It is similar to Australian English, and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.{{sfn|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=14}} The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-i sound (as in kit) has centralised towards the schwa sound (the a in comma and about); the short-e sound (as in dress) has moved towards the short-i sound; and the short-a sound (as in trap) has moved to the short-e sound.{{cite journal|last1=Bauer |first1=Laurie |last2=Warren |first2=Paul |last3=Bardsley |first3=Dianne |last4=Kennedy |first4=Marianna |last5=Major |first5=George |title=New Zealand English |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=2007 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=97–102 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282778721 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002830 |doi-access=free}}

After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged or forced from speaking their own language ({{lang|mi|te reo Māori}}) in schools and workplaces, and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas. The Native Schools Act 1867 required instruction in English in all schools, and while there was no official policy banning children from speaking Māori, many suffered from physical abuse if they did so.{{Cite web |date=30 May 2023 |title=The Crown's legacy of beating Māori children for speaking their reo |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/te-wiki-o-te-reo-maori-beaten-for-speaking-their-native-tongue-and-the-generations-that-suffered/F7G6XCM62QAHTYVSRVOCRKAUYI/ |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}{{Cite web |date=3 September 2019 |title=Crown should apologise to Māori beaten as children for te reo, says Dover Samuels |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/115508946/crown-should-apologise-to-mori-beaten-as-children-for-te-reo-says-dover-samuels |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Stuff |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=21 September 2015 |title=Native Affairs – Silenced |url=https://www.teaomaori.news/native-affairs-silenced |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Māori Television |language=en}} The Māori language has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,{{cite news |title=British influence ebbs as New Zealand takes to talking Māori |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/newzealand/1490814/British-influence-ebbs-as-New-Zealand-takes-to-talking-Maori.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/newzealand/1490814/British-influence-ebbs-as-New-Zealand-takes-to-talking-Maori.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |first=Nick |last=Squires |date=May 2005|work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=3 May 2017}}{{cbignore}} being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,{{cite web |title=Waitangi Tribunal claim – Māori Language Week |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/maori-language-week/waitangi-tribunal-claim |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=July 2010 |access-date=19 January 2011 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602204914/http://nzhistory.net.nz/culture/maori-language-week/waitangi-tribunal-claim |url-status=dead }} and is spoken by 4.0% of the population.{{refn|In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge of {{lang|mi|te reo Māori}}. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".{{cite web |title=Ngā puna kōrero: Where Māori speak te reo – infographic |url= http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/maori/te-kupenga/use-te-reo-infographic-english.aspx |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=8 September 2016}}|group=n}} There are now Māori language-immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.{{cite news |url= http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11670518 |first=John |last=Drinnan |title='Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television |work=The New Zealand Herald |quote=According to 2015 figures supplied by Maori TV, its two channels broadcast an average of 72 per cent Māori language content – 59 per cent on the main channel and 99 per cent on Te Reo |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=28 August 2016}} Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.{{cite web |title=Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 |url= http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0097/latest/DLM429090.html |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=10 March 2019 |date=20 May 2014 |orig-year=1 October 1998}}

As recorded in the 2018 census, Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 2.0%), Hindi (1.5%), and French (1.2%). New Zealand Sign Language was reported to be understood by 22,986 people (0.5%); it became one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.{{Cite web |date=10 April 2006 |title=New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 |url=https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2006/0018/latest/DLM372754.html |publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office |version=1 July 2022}}

{{Main|Religion in New Zealand}}

{{See also|Irreligion in New Zealand}}

File:Ratana Church Raetihi.jpg church on a hill near Raetihi. The two-tower construction is characteristic of Rātana buildings.{{cite book |last1=Kaa |first1=Hirini |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2017 |chapter=Ngā hāhi – Māori and Christian denominations – Ringatū and Rātana |access-date=4 April 2020 |chapter-url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/nga-hahi-maori-and-christian-denominations/page-7}}|alt=Simple white building with two red domed towers]]

At the 2023 census, 51.6% of population stated they had no religion, up from 48.2% in 2018 census. Christians are the single largest religious group, forming 32.3% of the population, compared to 36.5% in 2018. Hindus are the second largest religious minority, forming the 2.9% of population, followed by Muslims on 1.5%.{{Cite web |title=2023 Census population, dwelling, and housing highlights |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2023-census-population-dwelling-and-housing-highlights/ |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=Statistics New Zealand |publisher=}} The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.{{cite web |date=23 September 2019 |title=2018 Census place summaries |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/tools/2018-census-place-summaries/auckland-region#religion |access-date=30 March 2020 |work=Statistics New Zealand |publisher=}}

{{Main|Education in New Zealand|Tertiary education in New Zealand}}

Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority of children attending from the age of 5.{{cite web |title=Education Statistics of New Zealand: 2009 |publisher=Education Counts |first=Olivia |last=Dench|date=July 2010 |url= http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/ECE/2507/80221 |access-date=19 January 2011}} There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.{{cite web |url= http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1989/0080/latest/DLM177440.html |title=Education Act 1989 No 80|at=Section 3 |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |date=1989 |access-date=5 January 2013}} New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%, and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification. There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1989/0080/latest/DLM183668.html |title=Education Act 1989 No 80 (as at 01 February 2011), Public Act. Part 14: Establishment and disestablishment of tertiary institutions, Section 62: Establishment of institutions |publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office |work=Education Act 1989 No 80 |date=1 February 2011 |access-date=15 August 2011}} in addition to private training establishments.{{cite web |title=Studying in New Zealand: Tertiary education |publisher=New Zealand Qualifications Authority |url= http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/studying-in-new-zealand/tertiary-education |access-date=15 August 2011}} In 2021, in the population aged 25–64; 13% had no formal qualification, 21% had a school qualification, 28% had a tertiary certificate or diploma, and 35% have a bachelor's degree or higher.{{Cite web |title=Educational attainment of the adult population |url=https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/achievement-and-attainment/educational-attainment-of-the-adult-population.xlsx |website=educationcounts.govt.nz}} The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand as the 28th best in the OECD for maths, 13th best for science, and 11th best for reading.{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=PISA 2018 results |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm |access-date=7 October 2023 |website=PISA}}

{{Main|Culture of New Zealand}}

{{Tall image|KupeWheke.jpg|150|350|alt=Tall wooden carving showing Kupe above two tentacled sea creatures|Late 20th-century house-post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures|right}}

Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.{{sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=398}} The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,{{cite book |first=Terry |last=Hearn |chapter=English – Importance and influence |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/english/ |access-date=21 January 2011}}{{cite web |title=Conclusions – British and Irish immigration |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/home-away-from-home/conclusions |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=March 2007 |access-date =21 January 2011}} particularly with the introduction of Christianity.{{cite book |first=John |last=Stenhouse |chapter=Religion and society – Māori religion |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=November 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/religion-and-society/4 |access-date=21 January 2011}} However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.{{cite web |title=Māori Social Structures |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Justice |url=http://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/publications-archived/2001/he-hinatore-ki-te-ao-maori-a-glimpse-into-the-maori-world/part-1-traditional-maori-concepts/maori-social-structures |date=March 2001 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610051020/http://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/publications-archived/2001/he-hinatore-ki-te-ao-maori-a-glimpse-into-the-maori-world/part-1-traditional-maori-concepts/maori-social-structures |url-status=dead }} More recently, American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.{{cite news |title=Thousands turn out for Pasifika Festival |url= http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/327424/thousands-turn-out-for-pasifika-festival |access-date=18 August 2017|work=Radio New Zealand|date=25 March 2017}}

The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.{{sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=400}} Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.{{sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=399}} At the time, New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.{{cite book |first=Jock |last=Phillips |chapter=The New Zealanders – Post-war New Zealanders |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealanders/10 |access-date=21 January 2011}} From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.{{cite book |first=Jock |last=Phillips |chapter=The New Zealanders – Bicultural New Zealand |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealanders/12 |access-date=21 January 2011}} In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available, and cities expanded{{cite book |first=Jock |last=Phillips |chapter=The New Zealanders – Ordinary blokes and extraordinary sheilas |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealanders/11 |access-date=21 January 2011}} urban culture began to dominate.{{cite book |first=Jock |last=Phillips |chapter=Rural mythologies – The cult of the pioneer |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/rural-mythologies/5 |access-date=21 January 2011}} However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.{{cite book |first=Fiona |last=Barker |chapter=New Zealand identity – Culture and arts |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2012 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/new-zealand-identity/page-6 |access-date=7 December 2016}}

New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=John |chapter=Nation and government – Nationhood and identity |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-9 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=3 December 2016 |date=September 2016}} Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".

{{Main|New Zealand art}}

File:Hinepare.jpg by Gottfried Lindauer, showing chin moko, pounamu hei-tiki and woven cloak|alt=Refer to caption]]

As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised, and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Swarbrick |chapter=Creative life – Visual arts and crafts |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/2 |access-date =4 February 2011}} Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a stylised version.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Elements of Carving |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-art/4 |access-date=15 February 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Surface Patterns |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-art/5 |access-date=15 February 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.{{cite journal |last=McKay |first=Bill |title=Māori architecture: transforming western notions of architecture |date=2004 |journal=Fabrications |volume=14 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=1–12 |url= http://www.library.uq.edu.au/ojs/index.php/fab/article/viewFile/108/126|doi=10.1080/10331867.2004.10525189|s2cid=144007691 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110513145228/http://www.library.uq.edu.au/ojs/index.php/fab/article/viewFile/108/126 |archive-date=13 May 2011}}

Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Painted Designs |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-art/8 |access-date=15 February 2011|date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Tattooing |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-art/9 |access-date=15 February 2011 |date=2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.{{cite web |title=Beginnings – history of NZ painting |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/nz-painting-history/beginnings |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=December 2010 |access-date=17 February 2011}} Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation. The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism.{{cite web |title=A new New Zealand art – history of NZ painting |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/nz-painting-history/a-new-new-zealand-art |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=November 2010 |access-date=16 February 2011}} During the 1960s and 1970s, many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.{{cite web |title=Contemporary Maori art |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/nz-painting-history/contemporary-maori-art |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=November 2010 |access-date=16 February 2011}} New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.{{cite web |title=Paradise Lost: Contemporary Pacific Art at the Asia Society |first=Julie |last=Rauer |url= http://www.asianart.com/exhibitions/paradise/article.html |work=AsianArt.com |location=Santa Fe, New Mexico, US |access-date=17 February 2011}}

Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Textile Designs |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-art/10 |access-date=15 February 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.{{cite book |first=Basil |last=Keane |chapter=Pounamu – jade or greenstone – Implements and adornment |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/pounamu-jade-or-greenstone/4 |access-date=17 February 2011}} Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.{{cite book |first=John |last=Wilson |chapter=Society – Food, drink and dress |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/society/9 |access-date=17 February 2011}} Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Swarbrick |chapter=Creative life – Design and fashion |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/3 |access-date=22 January 2011}} However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.{{cite news |title=Fashion in New Zealand – New Zealand's fashion industry |newspaper=The Economist |date=28 February 2008 |url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=E1_TDSGGNTD |access-date =6 August 2009}}

{{main|New Zealand literature}}

Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Swarbrick |chapter=Creative life – Writing and publishing |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/6 |access-date=22 January 2011}} Most early English literature was obtained from Britain, and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.{{cite web |title=The making of New Zealand literature |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/literature-in-new-zealand-1930-1960 |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=November 2010 |access-date=22 January 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114212203/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/literature-in-new-zealand-1930-1960 |url-status=dead }} Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period, literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.{{cite web |title=New directions in the 1930s – New Zealand literature |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/literature-1940-60/1930s |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=August 2008 |access-date=12 February 2011}} Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.{{cite web |title=The war and beyond – New Zealand literature |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/nz-literature/the-growth-of-publishing |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=November 2007 |access-date=12 February 2011}} Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.{{cite web |title=28 cities join the UNESCO Creative Cities Network |url= http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/28_cities_join_the_unesco_creative_cities_network/back/9597/#.VPojtC6RNiR |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |date=December 2014 |access-date=7 March 2015}}

{{main|Music of New Zealand|Cinema of New Zealand|Media of New Zealand}}

File:LordeRoundhse010622 (17 of 66) (52119260286) (cropped2).jpg is one of the most internationally successful New Zealand artists.]]

New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Swarbrick |chapter=Creative life – Music |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/7 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514223830/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/creative-life/7 |archive-date=14 May 2011|url-status=dead}} Māori developed a varied musical tradition around songs and chants, including ceremonial performances, laments, and love songs.{{cite book |last1=McLean |first1=Mervyn |title=Maori Music |date=1996 |publisher=Auckland University Press |isbn=978-1-86940-144-3 |language=en}} Instruments (taonga pūoro), such as flutes and percussion, began being used as spiritual tools, entertainment, and signalling devices.{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Flintoff |chapter= Māori musical instruments – taonga puoro |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date= 22 October 2014 |chapter-url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/maori-musical-instruments-taonga-puoro |access-date=18 September 2024}}{{cite encyclopedia|editor-first=Alexander|editor-last=McLintock |title=Instruments Used for Non-musical Purposes |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-music/7 |access-date=16 February 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Music: General History |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/music/1 |access-date=15 February 2011|date=April 2009|orig-year=1966|encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}}{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Music: Brass Bands |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/music/3 |access-date=14 April 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=McLintock |title=Music: Pipe Bands |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/music/7 |access-date=14 April 2011 |date=April 2009 |orig-year=1966 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand}} The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards, and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs, and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Swarbrick |chapter=Creative life – Performing arts |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/8 |access-date=21 January 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110515153908/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/creative-life/8 |archive-date=15 May 2011|url-status=dead}} The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards.{{cite web |url= http://rianz.org.nz/awards2008/history.asp |title=History – celebrating our music since 1965 |publisher=Recording Industry Association of New Zealand |date=2008 |access-date=23 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110914072406/http://rianz.org.nz/awards2008/history.asp |archive-date=14 September 2011}} Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.{{cite web |url= http://www.rianz.org.nz/rianz/rianz_about.asp |title=About RIANZ – Introduction |publisher=Recording Industry Association of New Zealand |access-date=23 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111221160800/http://www.rianz.org.nz/rianz/rianz_about.asp |archive-date=21 December 2011}}

File:Hobbit holes reflected in water.jpg, located near Matamata, was used for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy.{{cite news |last1=Downes |first1=Siobhan|title=World famous in New Zealand: Hobbiton Movie Set |url= http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/destinations/nz/87903487/world-famous-in-new-zealand-hobbiton-movie-set |access-date=6 July 2017 |publisher=Stuff |date=1 January 2017}}]]

Public radio was introduced in New Zealand in 1922.{{cite book |last1=Brian |first1=Pauling |chapter=Radio – The early years, 1921 to 1932 |chapter-url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/radio/page-1 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=6 July 2017 |date=October 2014}} A state-owned television service began in 1960.{{cite web |title=New Zealand's first official TV broadcast |url= https://nzhistory.govt.nz/first-official-tv-broadcast |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=December 2016 |access-date=6 July 2017}} Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Swarbrick |chapter=Creative life – Film and broadcasting |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/5 |access-date=21 January 2011}} New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with many Australian and local shows.{{cite web |last1=Horrocks |first1=Roger |title=A History of Television in New Zealand |url= https://www.nzonscreen.com/history |work=NZ On Screen |access-date=13 September 2017}} The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers, and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. The highest-grossing New Zealand films are Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Whale Rider, Once Were Warriors, Heavenly Creatures, What We Do in the Shadows and The Piano.{{cite web |title=The highest-grossing New Zealand movies ever|work=Flicks|url= https://www.flicks.co.nz/features/top-10-highest-grossing-new-zealand-movies-ever/|date=27 July 2023}}{{cite web |url= http://www.flicks.co.nz/blog/list/top-10-highest-grossing-new-zealand-movies-ever/ |title=Top 10 Highest Grossing New Zealand Movies Ever|date=May 2016 |work=Flicks.co.nz |access-date=11 August 2017}} The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,{{cite news |title=New Zealand Bends and 'Hobbit' Stays |first1=Michael |last1=Cieply |first2=Jeremy |last2= Rose |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/business/media/28hobbit.html |date=October 2010|work=The New York Times |access-date=11 August 2017}} have encouraged some producers to shoot very big-budget and well known productions in New Zealand, including The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies, Avatar, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong, Wolverine, The Last Samurai, The Power of the Dog, Alien Covenant and Mulan.{{cite web |title=Production Guide: Locations |work=Film New Zealand |url= http://www.filmnz.com/production-guide/locations.html |access-date=21 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101107112931/http://www.filmnz.com/production-guide/locations.html |archive-date=7 November 2010}}{{cite web |title=Top Movies Filmed in Fiordland|work=Cruise Milford Sound |url= https://www.cruisemilfordnz.com/milford-sound-info/top-movies-filmed-in-fiordland/}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/disney-mulan-2020 |title=Every Single Detail Revealed So Far About Disney's Live-Action 'Mulan' Remake |date=24 August 2020 |access-date=20 December 2024 |last=Kim |first=Soey |publisher=British Vogue |archive-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127010018/https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/disney-mulan-2020 |url-status=live }} The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations.{{cite report |last1=Myllylahti |first1=Merja |title=JMAD New Zealand Media Ownership Report 2016 |pages=4–29 |publisher=Auckland University of Technology |date=December 2016 |url= http://www.aut.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/704053/JMAD-Report-2016.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170521074651/http://www.aut.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/704053/JMAD-Report-2016.pdf |archive-date=21 May 2017 |access-date=11 August 2017}} Since 1994, Freedom House has consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty, with the 19th freest media {{as of|lc=y|2015|post=.}}{{cite web |title=Scores and Status Data 1980–2015 |url= https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTP2015%20Scores%20and%20Status%201980-2015.xls|work=Freedom of the Press 2015 |publisher=Freedom House |access-date=23 November 2016}}

{{clear}}

{{Main|New Zealand cuisine}}

File:Hangi_ingredients.jpg]]

The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia.{{cite web |title=New Zealand Cuisine |work=New Zealand Tourism Guide |publisher=Tourism New Zealand |date=January 2016 |url= http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/nz/cuisine-and-dining |access-date=4 January 2016}} New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.{{cite book |last1=Petrie |first1=Hazel |chapter=Kai Pākehā – Introduced foods |chapter-url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/kai-pakeha-introduced-foods |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=27 June 2017 |date=November 2008}} Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, {{lang|mi|kōura}} (crayfish),{{cite book |last1=Whaanga |first1=Mere |chapter=Mātaitai – Shellfish gathering |chapter-url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=June 2006 |access-date=27 June 2017}} Bluff oysters, whitebait, {{lang|mi|pāua}} (abalone), mussels, scallops, {{lang|mi|pipi}} and {{lang|mi|tuatua}} (types of New Zealand shellfish),{{cite book |chapter=Shellfish |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=29 August 2016}} {{lang|mi|kūmara}} (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo, and pavlova (considered a national dessert).{{cite book |last=Burton |first=David |chapter=Cooking – Cooking methods |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=September 2013 |access-date=11 December 2016}} A hāngī is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven; still used for large groups on special occasions,{{cite web |last1=Satyanand |first1=Anand |title=Hangi for Prince William |date=17 January 2010 |url= https://gg.govt.nz/publications/hangi-prince-william |publisher=Office of the Governor-General of New Zealand |access-date=9 November 2018}} such as tangihanga.{{cite book |chapter=Māori foods – kai Māori |chapter-url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/maori-foods-kai-maori/page-4 |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |last1=Royal |first1=Charles |last2=Kaka-Scott |first2=Jenny |date=September 2013 |access-date=1 September 2016}}

{{Main|Sport in New Zealand}}

File:Haka 2006.jpg performed by the national rugby union team ("All Blacks") before a game. The haka is a challenge with vigorous movements and stamping of the feet.]]

Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.{{cite book |first=Terry |last=Hearn |chapter=English – Popular culture |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=March 2009 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/english/12 |access-date=22 January 2012}} Rugby union is considered the national sport{{cite web |url= http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/nzstories.nsf/0/479c4ffcbb884149cc256b1f00001198?OpenDocument |title=Sport, Fitness and Leisure |date=2000 |work=New Zealand Official Yearbook |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=21 July 2008 |quote=Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics. |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110607011003/http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/nzstories.nsf/0/479c4ffcbb884149cc256b1f00001198?OpenDocument |archive-date=7 June 2011}} and attracts the most spectators.{{cite book |first=Jock |last= Phillips |chapter=Sports and leisure – Organised sports |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=February 2011 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/sports-and-leisure/4 |access-date=23 March 2011}} Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) are particularly popular among young people. Horse racing is one of the most popular spectator sports in New Zealand and was part of the "rugby, racing, and beer" subculture during the 1960s.{{cite web |title=Rugby, racing and beer |url= http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/media/photo/rugby-racing-and-beer |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |date=August 2010 |access-date=22 January 2011}} Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.{{Cite news |title= More and more students wear school sports colours |url= http://www.sportsground.co.nz/Article.asp?SiteID=19259&ArticleID=44316 |publisher=New Zealand Secondary School Sports Council |access-date= 30 March 2015 |archive-date= 18 May 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170518035647/http://www.sportsground.co.nz/Article.asp?SiteID=19259&ArticleID=44316 |url-status= dead }} Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.{{cite book |first=Scott |last=Crawford |chapter=Rugby and the Forging of National Identity |chapter-url=http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/ASSHSSH/ASSHSSH11.pdf |date=January 1999 |editor-first=John |editor-last=Nauright |title=Sport, Power and Society in New Zealand: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives |series="ASSH Studies in Sports History" series |url-status=dead |publisher=Australian Society for Sports History |via=LA84Foundation.org (and Internet Archiave) |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025021/http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/ASSHSSH/ASSHSSH11.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012 |access-date=22 January 2011}} Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby, and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Derby |chapter=Māori–Pākehā relations – Sports and race |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=December 2010 |chapter-url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/maori-pakeha-relations/4 |access-date=4 February 2011}} New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism{{sfn|Bain|2006|p=69}} and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary.{{cite thesis |last=Langton |first=Graham |title=A history of mountain climbing in New Zealand to 1953 |date=1996 |location=Christchurch |publisher=University of Canterbury |url= https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/3549 |access-date=12 August 2017 |page=28}}{{cite news |title=World mourns Sir Edmund Hillary |date=11 January 2008 |work=The Age |location=Melbourne |url= http://news.theage.com.au/national/world-mourns-sir-edmund-hillary-20080111-1ldx.html}} Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular.{{cite web |url= http://www.activenzsurvey.org.nz/Documents/Participation-Levels.pdf |title=Sport and Recreation Participation Levels |publisher=Sport and Recreation New Zealand |access-date=27 November 2016 |date=2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150115065459/http://www.activenzsurvey.org.nz/Documents/Participation-Levels.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2015 |url-status=dead}} New Zealand has seen regular sailing success in the America's Cup regatta since 1995.{{cite web |title=New Zealand and the America's Cup |url= https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/americas-cup|date=17 May 2018 |publisher=New Zealand History}} The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.{{cite book |last1=Barclay-Kerr |first1=Hoturoa |chapter=Waka ama – outrigger canoeing |chapter-url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/waka-ama-outrigger-canoeing |title=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=12 August 2017 |date=September 2013}}

New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, rugby league, netball, cricket, softball, and sailing. New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920.{{cite web |title=NZ's first Olympic century |url= https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/olympics/overview |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=27 April 2017|date=August 2016}} The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games.{{cite web |url= https://www.medalspercapita.com/#golds-per-capita:1984 |title=Gold Medals per Capita |publisher=MedalsPerCapita.com |date=July 1984}}{{cite web |url= http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/olympics.aspx |title=London 2012 Olympic Games: Medal strike rate – Final count (revised) |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |date=14 August 2012 |access-date=4 December 2013}}{{cite web |title=Rio 2016 Olympic Games: Medals per capita |url= http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/olympics-2016.aspx |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=27 April 2017|date=30 August 2016}} The All Blacks, the national rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby.{{cite news |last=Kerr |first=James |title=The All Blacks guide to being successful (off the field) |date=14 November 2013 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/active/10427619/The-All-Blacks-guide-to-being-successful-off-the-field.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/active/10427619/The-All-Blacks-guide-to-being-successful-off-the-field.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=4 December 2013}}{{cbignore}} They have won the Rugby World Cup three times.{{cite web |title=New Zealand |date=2019 |work=RugbyWorldCup.com |url=https://www.rugbyworldcup.com/teams/new-zealand |access-date=3 November 2019 |archive-date=4 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104085131/https://www.rugbyworldcup.com/teams/new-zealand |url-status=dead }}

New Zealand is ranked 5th in the ICC Men's Test Team Rankings 2025 with a rating of 100.{{Cite web |last=icc |title=ICC Men's & Women's Cricket Rankings Overview |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=icc |language=en}}

{{portal|New Zealand|Oceania}}

• List of New Zealand-related topics
• Archaeology of New Zealand
• Outline of New Zealand

{{clear}}

{{Reflist|group=n|30em}}

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}

• {{Cite book |last=Bain |first=Carolyn |title=New Zealand |date=2006 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=1-74104-535-5}}
• {{cite book |last=Garden |first=Donald |editor-last=Stoll |editor-first=Mark |title=Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental History |date=2005 |series="Nature and Human Societies" series |publisher=ABC-Clio/Greenwood |isbn=978-1-57607-868-6}}
• {{cite book |first1=Jennifer |last1=Hay |first2=Margaret |last2= Maclagan |first3=Elizabeth |last3=Gordon |title=Dialects of English: New Zealand English |date=2008 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-2529-1}}
• {{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Jeffrey|chapter=Leadership and Culture in New Zealand |date=2007 |title=Culture and Leadership Across the World: The Globe Book of In-depth Studies of 25 Societies |editor1-first=Jagdeep |editor1-last=Chhokar |editor2-first=Felix |editor2-last=Brodbeck |editor3-first=Robert |editor3-last=House |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-8058-5997-3}}
• {{cite book |last=King |first= Michael |author-link=Michael King (historian) |title=The Penguin History of New Zealand |date=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-301867-4}}
• {{Cite book |last=Mein Smith |first=Philippa |title= A Concise History of New Zealand |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-54228-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Palmer|first=Matthew |author-link=Matthew Palmer |title=The Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand's Law and Constitution |date=2008 |publisher=Victoria University of Wellington Press |isbn=978-0-86473-579-9 }}
• {{cite book |first1=Roselynn |last1=Smelt |first2=Yong |last2=Jui Lin |title=New Zealand |edition=2nd |date=2009 |series="Cultures of the World" series |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7614-3415-3}}

{{Refend}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{cite book |last=Alley |first=Roderic |title=New Zealand in World Affairs IV 1990–2005 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VEa-0PKh__oC |date=2008 |publisher=Victoria University Press |isbn=978-0-864-73548-5}}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Bateman |editor-first=David |title=Bateman New Zealand Encyclopedia |date=2005 |publisher=David Bateman |edition=6th |isbn=1-86953-601-0}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sinclair |first1=Keith |author1-link=Keith Sinclair |last2=Dalziel |first2=Raewyn |author2-link=Raewyn Dalziel |title=A History of New Zealand |edition=revised |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-029875-8}}
• {{cite book |title=New Zealand Official Yearbook |date=2010 |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |isbn=978-1-86953-776-0}} (Annual.)

{{Refend}}

{{Sister project links|voy=New Zealand|d=Q664}}

Government

• {{official website|https://www.govt.nz/}} of the New Zealand Government
• [http://www.mch.govt.nz/ New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage] – includes information on flag, anthems and coat of arms
• [http://www.stats.govt.nz/ Statistics New Zealand]

Travel

• {{official website|http://www.newzealand.com/int/}} of New Zealand Tourism

General information

• [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-zealand/ "New Zealand"]. The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency.
• [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15357770 New Zealand country profile] from BBC News
• [http://www.teara.govt.nz/ Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]
• [http://www.oecd.org/newzealand/ New Zealand]. OECD.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085330/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/newzealand.htm New Zealand]. Directory from UCB Libraries GovPubs. Archived 7 June 2008.
• [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NZ Key Development Forecasts for New Zealand] from International Futures
• {{wikiatlas|New Zealand}}
• {{osmrelation-inline|556706}}

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