:Liberalism in India

Rise of liberalism

Prominent ideas of classical liberalism emerged in United Kingdom at the wane of the 18th century. These began as primarily leftist schools of thought, including, but not limited to, concepts such as individualism, liberty, and egalitarianism. Simultaneously, British India underwent a similar chrysalis. The effects of classical liberalism in India introduced many Western practices, philosophical doctrines, and political ideologies to the nation.{{cn|date=August 2024}}

Governor Generals of the British East India Company Warren Hastings and Charles Cornwallis instituted numerous changes over their rules. Notably, Cornwallis instituted the Cornwallis Code in 1793, a code of law influenced by Hindu and Muslim legal frameworks. The code placed the British at the top of a system regarding caste and religion that was present in India at the time. This marked the beginning of more than a century of classical liberalism in British India{{cite book |last1=Wickwire |first1=Franklin B. |title=Cornwallis: The Imperial Years |date=1980 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, NC |isbn=9780807813874 |page=90}}

Scottish writer James Mill gained prominence among the British around this time. Generally regarded as a utilitarian imperialist influenced by classical liberalism,{{cite book |last1=Pitts |first1=Jennifer |title=A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France |date=2006 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |isbn=9780691127910 |page=123}} his most successful work was A History of British India, published in 1817. Mill divided Indian history into three significant eras: Hindu (ancient), Muslim (medieval), and British (modern). Mill’s reductionist philosophy toward Indian history set harmful precedent for British figures and liberal policies in the years to come, including his son, John Stuart Mill, the policies of Governor General Thomas Macaulay, and numerous other figures.Ibid. In his 1999 work Liberalism and Empire, Uday Singh Mehta outlines the framework that Mill proactively established, stating that a nation's progress is dependent on a much more powerful nation:

“Mill sees in the histories of backward civilizations a potentiality on account of which they can in fact progress. But the actualization of this potentiality typically turns on a force external to those civilizations … Hindu civilization, for Mill, epitomizes this condition of being stalled in the past. But various aspects of Hindu Civilization had prepared it for progressive transformation.”{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Uday Singh |title=Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought |date=1999 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=9780226518817 |pages=94–95}}

Mehta later goes on to highlight Mill's argument that the Muslims laid the foundation for British rule to thrive, and that Hindu and Muslim culture were in need of assistance from the British.Ibid, 95. This motif among British liberalists, that Indians (both Hindus and Muslims), were not capable of civilized self-rule, appears again, as a common occurrence throughout the nineteenth century. The significance of Mill's opus is noticeable in the practical regulations established by Thomas Macaulay soon after. Macaulay served on Lord William Bentinck's Governor-General Supreme Council from 1834 to 1838,{{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Stephen |title=Macaulay's Minute Revisited: Colonial Language Policy in Nineteenth-Century India |journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |date=2002 |volume=23 |issue=4 |page=260 |doi=10.1080/01434630208666469|s2cid=144856725 }} and went on to publish his Minute on Indian Education in February 1835. This work set precedent for English education to be mandated in India, with the same, negative perception the British garnered toward Indians, as stated throughout:

“When we pass from works of imagination to works in which facts are recorded, and general principles investigated, the superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable … all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanscrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used at preparatory schools in England.”{{cite book |last1=Macaulay |first1=Thomas |title=Minute on Indian Education |date=1835 |url=http://oldsite.english.ucsb.edu/faculty/rraley/research/english/macaulay.html |access-date=26 November 2023}}

Indian intellectuals of the era

A key figure from early 19th century is Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He, along with his compatriots, created a constitutional history for India centred on a local judicial body called Panchayat. Roy himself put forward arguments in favour of Indian representation in Parliament and for constitutionally limiting the East India Company' power. He felt that the Indian public would be empowered by free press and service on juries under a liberal British government.{{cite journal |last=Bayly |first=C.A.|title=RAMMOHAN ROY AND THE ADVENT OF CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERALISM IN INDIA, 1800–30|journal=Modern Intellectual History |date=2007-03-08 |volume=4 |issue=1|pages=25–41 |doi=10.1017/S1479244306001028 |s2cid=145404296 }} Roy wanted modernity in curriculum for Indian students while not rejecting tradition outright. He was inspired by Christian humanism and insisted on reforming Hinduism, making it more ethical and rational.

Another important person was Gopal Krishna Gokhale, leader of the Indian National Congress who demanded self-rule for the Indian subcontinent.{{cite journal |last=Valdameri|first=Elena |title=The Influence of Liberalism in the Definition of the Idea of the Nation in India|journal=La Révolution française|date=24 June 2015|issue=8 |url=http://journals.openedition.org/lrf/1333|doi=10.4000/lrf.1333|access-date=2024-02-02}}

Radical liberals, in contrast to the moderates, were not interested in rehabilitating the Hindu past. They insisted that Hinduism cannot be redeemed because of its historical denial of rights to the downtrodden castes. Western education and scientific principles were to be the adopted rather than giving in to Brahminical dominance (again) according to the radicals like Ambedkar.{{cite web | title=Liberalisms in India:A sketch|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/37260/1/Bajpai_Liberalisms%2520in%2520India%2520handbook%2520August%25202017%2520eprints.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiDro_0_76HAxXgUWwGHeEIB6sQFnoECB4QAQ&usg=AOvVaw0yPaAIx5PBT5IjA4Gaws7F|date=2020|access-date=2024-07-24|author=Rochana Bajpai}}

Liberalism in post-independence period

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is a proponent of liberalism in India, promoting individual rights, social equality, and constitutional democracy. As the primary architect of the Indian Constitution, he incorporated liberal ideas such as free speech, secularism, and the rule of law, assuring protections for oppressed groups.{{Cite book |last=Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment |first=Govt. of India |title=Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar : Writings and Speeches |date=1979 |isbn=9789351091912 |location=New Delhi |publication-date= |language=}} Ambedkar championed education as a method of emancipation, arguing that universal access is necessary for individual empowerment. While his method had elements of classical liberalism.{{Cite web |title=The economics of Ambedkar |url=https://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/lzpPlO5wsmQENPeXNWvwcK/The-economics-of-Ambedkar.html |website=livemint}} He emphasized human dignity and self-reliance while also advocating for state participation in social justice, including affirmative action and economic safeguards to promote inclusive growth. His idea transformed Indian society into a more equal democracy, integrating liberalism and social justice.{{Cite web |last= |title=B. R. Ambedkar: An Indefatigable Defender of Human Rights |url=https://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2009/06/b-r-ambedkar-an-indefatigable-defender-of-human-rights.html |website=Hurights}}{{Cite web |title=Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar |url=https://globalcenters.columbia.edu/content/mumbai-bhimrao-ramji-ambedkar |website=Globalcenters columbia edu}}{{Cite web |title=The Socio-political Ideas of BR Ambedkar Liberal constitutionalism in a creative mould |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Socio-political-Ideas-of-BR-Ambedkar-Liberal-constitutionalism-in-a-creative-mould/Chakrabarty/p/book/9780367586881?srsltid=AfmBOoqUPmD_Akn2P8iFvIcPYUI0ArE3YhvvLFYUjsUmrost8XdkcTgd |website=routledge}}

Following independence, various critics emerged against Nehruvian Liberalism, such as Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, informally known as Rajaji, who parted ways with the Indian National Congress in 1957 and formed the Swatantra Party which supported classical liberal principles and free enterprise.{{cite news|last1=Rajagopalachari|first1=C|title=Why Swatantra?|url=http://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/XlvTGlfJcdJu9mQGZcksTI/C-Rajagopalachari--Why-Swatantra.html|access-date=4 April 2017|issue=16 July 2016|publisher=Mint}} Since then, many new thinkers such as S. V. Raju, Sharad Anantrao Joshi, Barun Mitra, Jayaprakash Narayan, Parth J. Shah, Gurcharan Das, Sauvik Chakraverti, Raghavendar Askani, Venkatesh Geriti, among others, have emerged on the Indian liberal scene, contributing to the debate on freedom in India, and advancing classical liberalism.{{Cite web|date=2013-07-17|title=Evolution of Liberalism in India|url=https://ccs.in/evolution-liberalism-india|access-date=2020-09-17|website=Centre For Civil Society|language=en|archive-date=26 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226035646/https://ccs.in/evolution-liberalism-india|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|title=Classical liberal-reformer-activist-empowering-youth-for-a-better-india|url=https://bookofachievers.com/articles/liberal-reformer-and-an-anti-corruption-activist-empowering-youth-for-a-better-india|website=Bookofachievers}}

Role of the State

One view is that Indian liberalism has primarily been the context created by the actions of the State – it is not easy to identify a consistent and organic belief system in the country as 'liberal'.{{Cite web|title=Does the BJP's massive victory prove that liberalism is dead in India?|url=https://scroll.in/article/924530/does-the-bjp-s-victory-prove-that-liberalism-is-dead-in-india|website=The Scroll|date=2019-05-24|access-date=2024-07-24|last=Srivastava |first=Sanjay}}

{{main|Economic liberalisation in India}}

{{See also|Neoliberalism}}

India's first attempt at economic liberalisation was carried out in 1966 as a precondition to an increase in foreign aid.{{cite news|last1=Mital|first1=Ankit|title=India and liberalization: There was a 1966 before 1991|url=http://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/h4nQPwoxX2j8HnftPQt2BI/India-and-liberalization-There-was-a-1966-before-1991.html|access-date=27 March 2017|publisher=Mint|date=24 January 2016}}

After Rajiv Gandhi became prime minister in 1984, many young leaders supporting liberal ideologies were made ministers.{{cite book|last=Srivastava|first=Aaku|title=Sensex of Regional Parties|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan Pvt. Limited|date=2022|isbn=978-93-5521-236-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OEeHEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Naga+People%27s+Front%22+-wikipedia&pg=PT231|access-date=2024-07-21}}

The economic liberalisation of 1991, initiated by then-prime minister P. V. Narasimha Rao in response to the 1991 Indian economic crisis, did away with the License Raj and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors.{{Cite web |title=India's industrial reforms of 1991: The inside story |date=6 August 2016 |url=https://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/GEflSNMjdRctaEbPAzxg9M/Indias-industrial-reforms-of-1991-The-inside-story.html }}{{Cite web |title=Everything about Manmohan Singh's Epochal Budget that marked the beginning of economic liberalisation |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/webspecial/everything-about-manmohan-singhs-epochal-budget-that-marked-the-beginning-of-economic-liberalisation }}

;Liberal organisations

• Swatantrata Centre{{cite web | url=https://libel.iflry.com/interview-with-venkatesh-geriti-from-swatantrata-center-in-india/ | title=Interview with Venkatesh Geriti from Swatantrata Center in India | first=Larissa | last=Saar | date=16 October 2020 | publisher=libel.iflry.com | access-date=27 December 2020 }}

;Prominent Indian classical liberals

• Dr. Jayaprakash Narayan{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/independence-special-2013/jayaprakash-narayan-fixing-governance-with-reforms-and-economic-freedom/35869/1|title=Jayaprakash Narayan: Fixing Governance With Reforms And Economic Freedom|website=Forbes India}}

;Prominent Indian left-liberals

• Amartya Sen{{cite web|last=Verhofstadt|first=Dirk|title=Liberalism is the best Cure for Poverty|url=http://www.liberales.be/cgi-bin/en/showframe.pl?essay&verhofstadtucos|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012215415/http://www.liberales.be/cgi-bin/en/showframe.pl?essay&verhofstadtucos|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 October 2006|access-date=17 August 2008}}{{cite journal|last=Fotopoulos|first=Takis|author-link=Takis Fotopoulos|date=October 2004|title=Why an Inclusive Democracy? The multidimensional crisis, globalisation and inclusive democracy|journal=The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy|volume=1|issue=1|url=http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/journal/vol1/vol1_no1_why.htm|access-date=21 May 2008}}

The defeat of Indian liberalism at the hands of illiberal political formations has been attributed to elitism, estrangement from the ideal of equality, and the bad faith inherent in its concept of secularism.{{cite web|author=G.Sampath|title=Why liberalism is turning into a joke in India|url=https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/F7bR85589b4bUrNtdGYnIO/Why-liberalism-is-turning-into-a-joke-in-India.html|website =Mint|date=8 April 2014|access-date=24 July 2024}}

• Lok Satta Party
• Swatantra Bharat Paksh{{Cite web |title=Why SBP – Swatantra Bharat Party |url=https://www.swatantra.org.in/why-swarna-bharat-party/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302000051/https://www.swatantra.org.in/why-swarna-bharat-party/ |archive-date=2024-03-02 |access-date=2024-10-26 |language=en-US}}

• Indian National Congress{{cite book |editor1=Emiliano Bosio |editor2=Yusef Waghid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6ZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA270 |title=Global Citizenship Education in the Global South: Educators' Perceptions and Practices |date=31 October 2022 |page=270 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004521742 }}
• Nationalist Congress Party – Sharadchandra Pawar{{cite web |last1=Jha |first1=Giridhar |title=Maharashtra Govt Formation: BJP's Return Into Ring Makes Scene Murkier |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/india-news-the-politricks-of-alliance/302350 |website=Outlook |access-date=27 December 2019 |date=25 November 2019}}

• Swatantra Party{{cite book|title=The Elephant Paradigm|page=244|year=2002|publisher=Penguin|first=Gurcharan|last=Das}}

• Bharatiya Lok Dal{{cite news

| author =

| title = Gandhi ends Indian censorship and frees political prisoners

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nJwuAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Bharatiya+Lok+Dal%22&pg=PA2&article_id=1940,4222869

| work = The Montreal Gazette

| date = 21 January 1977

| access-date = 19 June 2024

}}

• Conservatism in India
• Socialism in India

{{Reflist}}

• [http://www.ccsindia.org/ Centre for Civil Society]
• [http://www.indiapolicy.org/party/political.html India Policy Institute].
• [http://indianliberals.in/ Indian Liberals]
• [https://swatantrata.org/ Swatantrata Center]

{{Asia topic|Liberalism in}}

Category:Political history of India

Category:Indian political philosophy