Évolué
{{Short description|Westernised élites in French and Belgian colonial empires}}
{{italic title}}
File:Students in theTeaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu Wellcome L0039121.jpg studying medicine in Medical School of Yakusu Hospital, near Kisangani.]]
In the Belgian and French colonial empires, an {{lang|fr|évolué}} ({{IPA|fr|evɔlɥe|-|LL-Q150 (fra)-Lyokoï-évolué.wav}}, {{lit.}} 'evolved one' or 'developed one') was an African who had been Europeanised through education and assimilation and had accepted European values and patterns of behavior. {{lang|fr|Évolués}} spoke French and followed European rather than indigenous laws, usually held white-collar jobs (though rarely higher than clerks), and lived primarily in urban areas.
Belgian colonies
In the Belgian Congo (modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo), most {{lang|fr|évolué}}s emerged from the Congolese who filled skilled positions (such as clerks and nurses) made available by the economic boom in the country following World War II.{{sfn|Gibbs|1991|p=70}} Colonial administrators defined an {{lang|fr|évolué}} as "a man having broken social ties with his group, [and] having entered another system of motivations, another system of values."{{sfn|Gillet|Cornet|2010|p=19}} While there were no universal criteria for determining {{lang|fr|évolué}} status, it was generally accepted that one would have "a good knowledge of French, adhere to Christianity, and have some form of post-primary education."{{sfn|Gibbs|1991|p=70}}
Early on in their history, most {{lang|fr|évolués}} sought to use their unique status to earn special privileges in the Congo.{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=24}} They asked that the colonial administration recognize their role as mediators between the Belgians and the native "savages."{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=25}} On 12 July 1948, the Governor-General of the Belgian Congo issued an ordinance creating the {{lang|fr|carte de mérite civique}} (civic merit card),{{sfn|Young|1965|p=78}} which could be granted to any Congolese who had no criminal record, did not practice polygamy, abandoned traditional religion, and had some degree of education.{{sfn|Geenen|2019|p=114}}
French literacy was required except for those persons who had served 20 years as a customary chief or who had provided "good and faithful service" for 25 years in the administration.{{sfn|Young|1965|p=78}} Cardholders were given an improved legal status and were exempt from certain restrictions on travel into European districts. Of the thousands of {{lang|fr|évolué}}s in the Congo, only a small proportion of them earned a {{lang|fr|carte}}. In 1957 there were 1,557 cardholders.{{sfn|Geenen|2019|p=114}}
There was discontent about the limited nature of the privileges attached to the {{lang|fr|carte de mérite civique}}; so in 1952, the colonial administration introduced the {{lang|fr|carte d'immatriculation}}, which granted to those who obtained it full legal equality with Europeans. The latter card was much more difficult to obtain.{{sfn|Geenen|2019|p=114}} One who sought to obtain it had to have a letter of recommendation from his employer and pass an evaluation. The evaluation was administered by an investigative commission, which would visit a candidate in his home, examine his household items such as linen and silverware, and ascertain if he ate with his wife at the table and communicated with his children in French.{{sfn|Nzongola-Ntalaja|2002|p=41}} After this, a candidate and his wife had to appear before the head magistrate of the provincial court to answer a series of questions.{{sfn|Young|1965|p=86}} By 1958 only 217 Congolese had been awarded a {{lang|fr|carte d'immatriculation}}.{{sfn|Geenen|2019|p=114}} Most {{lang|fr|évolué}}s found {{lang|fr|immatriculation}} irritating and by the mid-1950s, the project was thoroughly discredited.{{sfn|Young|1965|p=87}}
File:Belgian Congo native club.jpg
Since opportunities for upward mobility through the colonial structure were limited, the {{lang|fr|évolué}} class institutionally manifested itself through clubs and associations. Through these groups they could enjoy trivial privileges that made them feel distinct from the Congolese "masses".{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=25}} In 1947, there were 110 social clubs consisting of 5,609 members throughout the Congo's cities. From 1952 to 1956, the number of clubs rose from 131 to 317, with their membership increasing from 7,661 to 15,345.{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=26}}
Most of these associations were rather small, but some eventually grew in size to encompass entire regions and ethnic groups, such as the {{lang|fr|Alliance des Bakongo}}.{{sfn|Gibbs|1991|p=71}} {{lang|fr|Évolué}}s organised most of the educational opportunities for women in the Belgian Congo, since the colonial government put little effort into such ventures.{{cite web |url= https://www.africamuseum.be/de/discover/focus_collections/display_group?groupid=346 |title=The urban photography of Joseph Makula |last=Ceuppens |first=Bambi |publisher=Royal Museum for Central Africa |access-date=30 March 2020}}
By 1958, colonial officials estimated that there were 175,000 people who could be classed as {{lang|fr|évolués}} in the colony.{{sfn|Gillet|Cornet|2010|p=19}} In the final years leading up to independence, {{lang|fr|évolués}} played a major role in colonial propaganda as they were felt to exemplify the success of the Belgian civilizing mission begun under King Leopold II. In particular, it was felt that after independence, the assimilation of European values by the {{lang|fr|évolués}} meant that Belgian civilian inhabitants of the Congo could continue to live in the Congo as part of a culturally European multiracial state.{{sfn|Gillet|Cornet|2010|p=19}}
Over time many {{lang|fr|évolué}}s grew disillusioned with their attempts to assimilate with European culture, as it did not lead to full equality and the elimination of discrimination they sought. As this occurred, many became politically active and began pushing for Congolese independence from Belgium.{{sfn|Nzongola-Ntalaja|2002|p=80}}
See also
{{Portal|History|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
References
{{Reflist|2}}
= Sources =
- {{cite book |last1=DeLancey |first1=Mark W. |last2=DeLancey |first2=Mark Dike |date=2000 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon |edition=3rd |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Scarecrow Press}}
- {{cite journal |last=Geenen |first=Kristien |title=Categorizing colonial patients: Segregated medical care, space and decolonization in a Congolese city, 1931–62 |journal=The Journal of the International African Institute |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=100–124 |date=2019 |doi=10.1017/S0001972018000724 |s2cid=151174421 |issn=1750-0184}}
- {{cite book |last=Gibbs |first=David N. |title=The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis |publisher=University of Chicago Press |series=American Politics and Political Economy |date=1991 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NgN64EXv8mgC |isbn=9780226290713}}
- {{cite book |last1=Gillet |first1=Florence |last2=Cornet |first2=Anne |title=Congo-Belgique 1955-1965: Entre Propagande et Réalité |date=2010 |publisher=Renaissance du livre |location=Brussels |isbn=9782507003302}}
- {{cite book |last=Nzongola-Ntalaja |first=Georges |title=The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History |publisher=Zed Books |edition=illustrated, reprint |date=2002 |location=London |author-link=Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qqWIvIAe2h4C |isbn=9781842770535}}
- {{cite book |last=Willame |first=Jean-Claude |title=Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1972 |url= https://archive.org/details/patrimonialismpo0000will |url-access=registration |isbn=9780804707930}}
- {{cite book |last=Young |first=Crawford |title=Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=1965 |oclc=307971}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Evolue}}
Category:French colonial empire
Category:Belgian colonial empire
Category:Cultural assimilation