16 Psyche#Shape and Spin Pole

File:Psyche insignia.svg

Astronomers created icon-like symbols for the first fifteen asteroids to be discovered, as a type of shorthand notation consistent with older notation for the classical planets. Psyche was given an iconic symbol, as were a few other asteroids discovered after 16 Psyche. The symbol was a butterfly's wing topped by a star (File:Psyche symbol (fixed width).svg or File:Psyche symbol (elaborate, fixed width).svg), as the butterfly was a Greek symbol of the soul (psyche being the Greek word for both "butterfly" and "soul"). This symbol may have influenced the design of the official insignia for the NASA Psyche mission to this asteroid. It is in the pipeline for Unicode 17.0 as U+1CEC9 𜻉 (12px).{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2023/23207-historical-asteroids.pdf |title=Unicode request for historical asteroid symbols |last1=Bala |first1=Gavin Jared |last2=Miller |first2=Kirk |date=18 September 2023 |website=unicode.org |publisher=Unicode |access-date=26 September 2023 |quote=}}{{cite web |title=Proposed New Characters |series=The Pipeline |date= |website=unicode.org |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |url=https://unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html |access-date=6 November 2023 }}

However, the iconic symbols for all asteroids were superseded before Psyche's symbol ever came into use. With more than a dozen asteroids discovered, remembering all their individual emblems became increasingly cumbersome, and, in 1851, German astronomer J.F. Encke suggested using a circled number instead: {{big|⑯}}. The first asteroid designated with the new scheme was {{nobr|{{big|⑯}} Psyche}}, when American astronomer J. Ferguson published his observations in 1852.

The first size estimate of Psyche was {{convert|253|km||abbr=}} and came from IRAS thermal infrared emission observations. This is 15% larger than the currently accepted mean value, but was later found to be an accurate estimate for the IRAS viewing aspect because Psyche was viewed pole-on at the time of the measurement.

Psyche has been observed to occult a star on nine occasions. Four of these, 2004, 2010, 2014, and 2019, generated multi-chord data sets and have been used along with adaptive optics imaging and three-dimensional modeling to estimate Psyche's mean diameter, with recent models all converging to an equivalent-volume mean diameter of {{val|222|3}} km.

File:Psyche asteroid eso.jpg ]]

Psyche is massive enough that its gravity observably perturbs other asteroids' orbits, which can be used to calculate a mass estimate. Historical values for Psyche's mass have ranged from {{val|1.6|e=19|u=kg}} to {{val|6.7|e=19|u=kg}}. However, most recent estimates have begun to converge on values near {{val|2.287|0.070|e=19|u=kg}}. Assuming the mean volume of {{val|5.75|0.19|e=6|u=km3}}, this equates to a bulk density of {{val|3.977|0.253|u=g/cm3}}, which is considerably higher than most small Solar System bodies.

The first published three-dimensional shape model for Psyche was derived from an analysis of numerous

light curves. Since then, additional refinements to the shape have been made based on the inversion of lightcurves, adaptive optics observations, radar observations, thermal imaging, and occultations. The most recent models show that Psyche has a shape consistent with a Jacobi ellipsoid and dimensions within a few km of 278 km x 238 km x 171 km.

Each shape model provides an estimate of the direction of the north pole (spin axis). All recent models for Psyche suggest it rotates about a pole pointed towards the ecliptic coordinates (long, lat) {{nowrap|λ {{=}} 35°}}, {{nowrap|β {{=}} −8°}}, with a 3° uncertainty. This means that it is essentially tilted toward the ecliptic, with an axial tilt of 98°.

{{multiple image

| align = left

| direction = vertical

| total_width = 220

|image1 = Psyche_ellipsoid_shape.png | caption1 = View of Psyche from its south pole with a best fit ellipsoid overlain. Major deviations from the ellipsoid shape are referred to as Alpha, Bravo, and Charlie.

| image2 = 16PsycheNorthView.gif | caption2 = Animation of a Psyche shape model viewed from 20° north latitude. The red peg is at 0° longitude.

| image3 = 16PsycheSouthView.gif | caption3 = Animation of a Psyche shape model viewed from 20° south latitude. The red peg is at 0° longitude.

}}

File:Psyche illustration.jpg

Many features have been reported on Psyche. The largest of these are regions of mass-deficits relative to its nominal ellipsoid shape and are reminiscent of the Rheasilvia basin on 4 Vesta.

In addition to the large-scale regions of mass-deficit, several apparent craters have been reported. Observers using the Very Large Telescope's adaptive optics SPHERE imager reported two large craters, on the order of 90 km across, which were provisionally named Meroe {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛr|oʊ|iː}} and Panthia {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|æ|n|θ|i|ə}},{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} after the twin witches in the Roman novel Metamorphoses by Apuleius. Observers using the Arecibo Radar Telescope reported craters at the south pole (referred to as Delta), southern midlatitudes (referred to as Eros), and the north pole (referred to as Foxtrot). An analysis of the features present in several independent shape models suggests that craters Panthia and Eros are almost certainly real and Foxtrot is likely to be real. However, there is uncertainty over the existence of Meroe and Delta.

Early lightcurve studies suggested that Psyche has large variations in its surface brightness. These variations became more evident when attempts were made to invert lightcurves to generate shape models. The most recent shape models based on lightcurve inversions simultaneously solve for surface albedo variations, and the resulting maps show regions where local albedo differs from the mean albedo by more than 20% in either direction. Notably, the Meroe crater coincides with an area much darker than the mean, and the Panthia crater coincides with an area much brighter than the mean.

Radar observations with the Arecibo Radar Telescope revealed that Psyche's "background" radar albedo is $\backslash hat\{\backslash sigma\}\_\{OC\}=0.26$, comparable to other M-type asteroids like 21 Lutetia. This value is consistent with a silicate (rocky) regolith enriched in metal phases. However, in at least three locations, Psyche's radar albedo is nearly twice this value, suggesting high concentrations of metal phases in these regions. One of these locations corresponds with the optically bright Panthia crater, while the other two correspond with regions that have been reported as optically bright. This apparent correlation between optical and radar albedos on Psyche has led to the hypothesis that there is a link between the process(es) that create regions of high metal content and brighter terrain.

{{multiple image

| align = right

| direction = vertical

| total_width = 220

| image1 = Psyche features Shepard2021.jpg | caption1 = Shape model of asteroid 16 Psyche, with some of the observed surface features indicated.

| image2 = Psyche albedo Shepard2021.jpg |thumb | caption2 = Optical albedo map of asteroid 16 Psyche with superimposed radar albedo measurements (circles).

}}

The bulk density of Psyche ({{val|3.9|0.3|u=g/cm3}}) places constraints on its overall composition. The iron-nickel found in most iron meteorites has a bulk density of {{val|7.9|u=g/cm3}}. If Psyche were the remnant core of an early planetesimal, it would have to have an overall porosity of 50%. Given Psyche's size, this is considered highly improbable. However, there are other metal-rich meteorite types that have been suggested as Psyche analogs, each of which have bulk densities that are similar to Psyche's, including enstatite chondrites, bencubbinites, and mesosiderites.

Several observers have reported the presence of silicate minerals on the surface of Psyche. Spectra taken in October 2016 at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility at the Mauna Kea Observatories showed evidence (~3 μm absorption feature) of hydroxyl ions on the asteroid that may suggest the presence of hydrated silicates. Since Psyche is thought to have formed under dry conditions without the presence of water, the hydroxyl may have reached Psyche via past impacts from smaller carbonaceous asteroids.

Psyche's radar albedo varies considerably over the surface, ranging from 0.22 to 0.52, values that are two to four times as high as most main-belt asteroids. Models of radar reflection equate this range of values with regolith bulk densities of 2.6 to 4.7 {{val|u=g/cm3}}. This range is consistent with most of the metal-rich meteorite classes noted above and the spectroscopic detection of silicate minerals. It is inconsistent with a pure iron-nickel regolith unless it is highly porous.

File:16 Psyche orbit.png

Several possible origins have been proposed for Psyche. The earliest of these was that Psyche is an exposed metallic core resulting from a collision that stripped away the crust and mantle of an originally larger differentiated parent body some 500 kilometers in diameter. Other versions of this include the idea that it was not the result of a single large collision but multiple (more than three) relatively slow sideswipe collisions with bodies of comparable or larger size. However, this idea has fallen out of recent favor as mass and density estimates are inconsistent with a remnant core.

A second hypothesis is that Psyche was disrupted and gravitationally re-accreted into a mix of metal and silicate. In this case, it may be a candidate for the parent body of the mesosiderites, a class of stony–iron meteorites.

A third hypothesis is that Psyche may be a differentiated object, like 1 Ceres and 4 Vesta, but has experienced a type of iron volcanism, also known as ferrovolcanism, while still cooling. If true, this model predicts that metal would be highly enriched only in those regions containing (relic) volcanic centers. This view has been bolstered by recent radar observations.

{{main|Psyche (spacecraft)}}

File:PIA21499 - Artist's Concept of Psyche Spacecraft with Five-Panel Array.jpg

No spacecraft has visited Psyche, but a mission to Psyche was proposed to NASA in 2014. A team led by Lindy Elkins-Tanton, the director of the School for Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University, presented a concept for a robotic Psyche orbiter. This team argued that 16 Psyche would be a valuable object for study because it is the only metallic core-like body discovered so far.

The spacecraft would orbit Psyche for 20 months, studying its topography, surface features, gravity, magnetism, and other characteristics and would be based on current technology, avoiding high cost and the necessity to develop new technologies. On 30 September 2015, the Psyche orbiter mission was one of five Discovery Program semifinalist proposals.

The mission was approved by NASA on 4 January 2017 and was originally targeted to launch in October 2023, with an Earth gravity assist maneuver in 2024, a Mars flyby in 2025, and arriving at the asteroid in 2030. In May 2017, the launch date was moved up to target a more efficient trajectory, launching in 2022, with a Mars gravity assist in 2023 and arriving in 2026. However, problems with Psyche's flight software led NASA to revert to the original launch timeline.{{Cite web |author1=Elizabeth Howell |date=27 January 2023 |title=NASA to launch Psyche asteroid probe in October 2023 after delays |url=https://www.space.com/psyche-asteroid-probe-october-2023-launch |access-date=20 October 2023 |website=Space.com |language=en}}

On 28 February 2020, NASA awarded SpaceX a US$117 million contract to launch the Psyche spacecraft, and two smallsat secondary missions, on a Falcon Heavy rocket. The spacecraft was successfully launched on 13 October 2023, at 14:19 UTC,{{Cite web |date=October 13, 2023 |title=NASA’s Psyche Spacecraft, Optical Comms Demo En Route to Asteroid |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-psyche-spacecraft-optical-comms-demo-en-route-to-asteroid |access-date=13 October 2023 |website=nasa.gov |language=en}} with an expected arrival in 2029.

Asteroid Psyche has an Earth-MOID of {{Convert|1.5|AU|e6km LD|abbr=unit|lk=on}}, and most recently came to opposition on 6 August 2024 when it was {{Convert|1.7|AU|e6km LD|abbr=unit}} from Earth.

{{clear}}

• List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft
• List of missions to minor planets
• Asteroid mining
• Colonization of the asteroid belt
• Gravity elevator

{{notelist}}

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|website=Planetary Data System

|url=https://sbn.psi.edu/pds/asteroid/EAR_A_5_DDR_TAXONOMY_V6_0/data/taxonomy10.lbl

|access-date=16 April 2018 |url-status=dead

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217090549/http://sbn.psi.edu/pds/asteroid/EAR_A_5_DDR_TAXONOMY_V6_0/data/taxonomy10.lbl

|archive-date=17 December 2015

}}

{{cite web

|title=Asteroid Data Sets

|website=sbn.psi.edu

|publisher=NASA / Planetary Science Institute

|url=https://sbn.psi.edu/pds/resource/occ.html

|access-date=26 May 2018

|archive-date=12 September 2010

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912112550/https://sbn.psi.edu/pds/resource/occ.html

|url-status=live

}}

{{cite web

|last1=Psyche

|title=Psyche 2010 Occultation

|url=https://www.asteroidoccultation.com/observations/Results/Reviewed/index2010.html

|website=IOTA Asteroid Occultation Reports 2010

|access-date=27 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208125051/https://www.asteroidoccultation.com/observations/Results/Reviewed/index2010.html

|url-status=live

}}

{{cite web

|last1=Psyche

|title=Psyche 2019 Occultation

|url=https://www.asteroidoccultation.com/observations/Results/Reviewed/index2019.html

|website=IOTA Asteroid Occultation Reports 2019

|access-date=27 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208122909/https://www.asteroidoccultation.com/observations/Results/Reviewed/index2019.html

|url-status=live

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Sanchez |first1=J. A.

|title=Detection of rotational spectral variation on the M-type asteroid (16) Psyche.

|journal=The Astronomical Journal

|date=2017 |volume=153 |issue=1

|page=29

|doi=10.3847/1538-3881/153/1/29|arxiv=1701.02742

|bibcode=2017AJ....153...29S

|s2cid=59425536

|doi-access=free

}}

{{cite book

|first=Lutz D. |last=Schmadel

|year=2012

|title=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names

|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media

|edition=6th |pages=14–15

|isbn=978-3642297182

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeAg1X7afOoC&pg=PA14

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Shepard |first1=M. K.

| display-authors= etal

|title=A radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids: III. Insights into their composition, hydration state, and structure.

|journal=Icarus |date=2015 |volume=245 |pages=38–55

| doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2014.09.016|bibcode=2015Icar..245...38S

}}

{{cite journal

| doi=10.3847/PSJ/abfdba

| title=Asteroid 16 Psyche: Shape, Features, and Global Map

| year=2021

| last1=Shepard | first1=Michael K. | last2=De Kleer | first2=Katherine | last3=Cambioni | first3=Saverio | last4=Taylor | first4=Patrick A. | last5=Virkki | first5=Anne K. | last6=Rívera-Valentin | first6=Edgard G. | last7=Rodriguez Sanchez-Vahamonde | first7=Carolina | last8=Fernanda Zambrano-Marin | first8=Luisa | last9=Magri | first9=Christopher | last10=Dunham | first10=David | last11=Moore | first11=John | last12=Camarca | first12=Maria

| journal=The Planetary Science Journal | volume=2 | issue=4 | page=125

| arxiv=2110.03635

| bibcode=2021PSJ.....2..125S | s2cid=235918955

| doi-access=free

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Shepard |first1=Michael K.

|last2=Richardson |first2=James

|last3=Taylor |first3=Patrick A.

|display-authors=etal

|year=2017

|title=Radar observations and shape model of asteroid 16 Psyche

|journal=Icarus

|volume=281 |pages=388–403

|bibcode=2017Icar..281..388S

|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.08.011 |doi-access=free

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Siltala |first1=L.

|last2=Granvik |first2=M.

|title=Mass and density of Asteroid (16) Psyche

|journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters

|date=2021

|volume=909 |issue=1 |pages=5

|doi=10.3847/2041-8213/abe948|arxiv=2103.01707

|bibcode=2021ApJ...909L..14S

|s2cid=232092983

|doi-access=free

}}

{{cite journal

|last=Sonntag |first=A.

|date=1852

|title=Elemente und Ephemeride der Psyche

|journal=Astronomische Nachrichten

|volume=34 |issue=20 |page=283

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWM_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA283

|bibcode=1852AN.....34..283. |doi=10.1002/asna.18520342010

|quote=[in a footnote] Herr Professor de Gasparis schreibt mir, in Bezug auf den von ihm März 17 entdeckten neuen Planeten: J'ai proposé, avec l'approbation de Mr. Hind, le nom de Psyché pour la nouvelle planète, ayant pour symbole une aile de papillon surmontée d'une étoile.

|url-access=subscription

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Takir |first1=Driss |last2=Reddy |first2=Vishnu

|last3=Sanchez |first3=Juan A. |last4=Shepard |first4=Michael K.

|last5=Emery |first5=Joshua P.

|year=2016

|title=Detection of water and/or hydroxil on asteroid (16) Psyche

|journal=The Astronomical Journal

|volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=31

|doi=10.3847/1538-3881/153/1/31 |arxiv=1610.00802

|bibcode=2017AJ....153...31T |s2cid=118611420

|doi-access=free }}

{{cite journal

|url=https://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso2114/eso2114a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012120412/https://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso2114/eso2114a.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2021 |url-status=live

|title=VLT/SPHERE imaging survey of the largest main-belt asteroids: Final results and synthesis

|date=4 October 2021

|author1=P. Vernazza |author2=M. Ferrais |author3=L. Jorda |author4=J. Hanuš |author5=B. Carry |display-authors=4

|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics

|volume=654

|pages=A56

|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202141781

|bibcode=2021A&A...654A..56V

|s2cid=239104699

|access-date=14 October 2021

}}

{{cite journal

|first1=M. |last1=Viikinkoski |first2=P. |last2=Vernazza

|first3=J. |last3=Hanuš |first4=H. |last4=le Coroller

|first5=K. |last5=Tazhenova |first6=B. |last6=Carry

|display-authors=etal

|date=6 November 2018

|title=(16) Psyche: A mesosiderite-like asteroid?

|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics

|volume=619 |number=L3 |pages=L3

|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201834091 |arxiv=1810.02771

|bibcode=2018DPS....5040408M |s2cid=54075141

|url=https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2018/11/aa34091-18.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430024240/https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2018/11/aa34091-18.pdf |archive-date=30 April 2019 |url-status=live

}}

{{cite news

|last=Wall

|first=Mike

|date=15 January 2014

|title=Strange metal asteroid targeted in far-out NASA mission concept

|website=Space.com

|publisher=TechMedia Network

|url=http://www.space.com/24288-strange-metal-asteroid-psyche-nasa-mission.html

|access-date=16 January 2014

|archive-date=18 January 2014

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118094509/http://www.space.com/24288-strange-metal-asteroid-psyche-nasa-mission.html

|url-status=live

}}

{{cite encyclopedia

|title=Psyche ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aɪ|k|iː}})

|first=Noah |last=Webster

|year=1884

|dictionary=A Practical Dictionary of the English Language

}}

{{cite book

|first=John |last=Zimmerman

|year=1966

|title=Dictionary of Classical Mythology

}}

{{cite news

|last=Wall

|first=Mike

|date=28 September 2023

|title=NASA's Psyche Mission Targeting Oct. 12 for Launch

|website=blogs.nasa.gov

|publisher=Nasa

|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/psyche/2023/09/28/nasas-psyche-mission-targeting-oct-12-for-launch

|access-date=30 September 2023

|archive-date=29 September 2023

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929225443/https://blogs.nasa.gov/psyche/2023/09/28/nasas-psyche-mission-targeting-oct-12-for-launch/

|url-status=live

}}

}}

• {{cite web

|last1=Kaasalainen |first1=M.

|display-authors=etal

|year=2002

|title=Shape model deduced from lightcurve

|url=http://www.rni.helsinki.fi/~mjk/IcarPIII.pdf

|access-date=16 May 2006

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216072340/http://www.rni.helsinki.fi/~mjk/IcarPIII.pdf

|archive-date=16 February 2008

}}

• {{AstDys|16}}
• {{JPL small body}}
• {{cite magazine

|last=Carter |first=Jamie

|date=26 October 2020

|title=Hubble examines massive metal asteroid called 'Psyche' that's worth way more than our global economy

|magazine=Forbes

|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2020/10/26/hubble-views-massive-asteroid-called-psyche-that-could-worth-more-than-our-global-economy/

|access-date=28 October 2020

}}

{{Minor planets navigator |15 Eunomia |number=16 |17 Thetis}}

{{Large asteroids}}

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18520317

Category:Background asteroids

Psyche

Category:M-type asteroids (Tholen)

Category:Minor planets to be visited by spacecraft

Psyche

Category:X-type asteroids (SMASS)