2G

{{Short description|First generation of digital cellular networks}}

2G refers to the second-generation of cellular network technology, which were rolled out globally starting in the early 1990s. The main differentiator to previous mobile telephone systems, retrospectively dubbed 1G, is that the radio signals of 2G networks are digital rather than analog, for communication between mobile devices and base stations. In addition to voice telephony, 2G also made possible the use of data services.

The most common 2G technology has been the GSM standard, which became the first globally adopted framework for mobile communications. Other 2G technologies include cdmaOne and the now-discontinued Digital AMPS (D-AMPS/TDMA),{{cite web |date=16 January 2017 |title=2G Sunset Brings Faster Speeds, Newer Technologies |url=https://about.att.com/innovationblog/2g_sunset |access-date=27 January 2023}} as well the Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) in Japan.

The transition to digital technology enabled the implementation of encryption for voice calls and data transmission, significantly improving the security of mobile communications while also increasing capacity and efficiency compared to earlier analog systems. 2G networks were primarily designed to support voice calls and Short Message Service (SMS), with later advancements such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) enabling always-on packet data services, including email and limited internet access. 2G was succeeded by 3G technology, which provided higher data transfer rates and expanded mobile internet capabilities.

History

In 1990, AT&T Bell Labs engineers Jesse Russell, Farhad Barzegar and Can A. Eryaman filed a patent for a digital mobile phone that supports the transmission of digital data. Their patent was cited several years later by Nokia and Motorola when they were developing 2G digital mobile phones.{{Cite patent|number=US5257397A|title=Mobile data telephone|fdate=1990-08-13|pridate=1990-08-13|gdate=1993-10-26 (filed 1990-08-13)|invent1=Barzegar|invent2=Eryaman|invent3=Russell|invent4=Schroeder|inventor1-first=Farhad|inventor2-first=Can A.|inventor3-first=Jesse E.|inventor4-first=Robert E.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US5257397A/en}}

2G was first commercially launched in 1991 by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in Finland in the form of GSM, which was defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).{{cite web |date=2004-04-20 |title=Radiolinja's History |url=http://www.elisa.com/english/index.cfm?t=6&o=6532.50 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023212724/http://www.elisa.com/english/index.cfm?t=6 |archive-date=2006-10-23 |access-date=2009-12-23}} The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) defined the cdmaOne (IS-95) 2G standard, with an eight to ten fold increase in voice call capacity compared to analog AMPS.{{Cite web |title=CDMA Network Technology: A Decade Of Advances And Challenges |url=https://www.tek.com/en/documents/technical-brief/cdma-network-technology-decade-advances-and-challenges |access-date=2025-02-26 |website=www.tek.com |language=en}} The first deployment of cdmaOne was in 1995.{{Cite web |title=4: CDMA - Cellular Technologies for Emerging Markets: 2G, 3G and Beyond [Book] |url=https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/cellular-technologies-for/9780470975671/OEBPS/9780470975671_epub_ch_4.htm |access-date=2025-02-26 |website=www.oreilly.com |language=en}} In North America, Digital AMPS (IS-54 and IS-136) and cdmaOne (IS-95) were dominant, but GSM was also used.

Later 2G releases in the GSM space, often referred to as 2.5G and 2.75G, include General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). GPRS allows 2G networks to achieve a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 40 kbit/s (5 kB/s). EDGE increases this capacity, providing a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s (48 kB/s).

Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their 1G predecessors were:

Digitally encrypted phone conversations, at least between the mobile phone and the cellular base station but not necessarily in the rest of the network.
Significantly more efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum enabling more users per frequency band.
Data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages then expanding to Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).

Evolution of GSM 2G

File:Cellular network standards and generation timeline.svg

= 2.5G (GPRS) =

2.5G ("second-and-a-half generation") refers to 2G systems that incorporate a packet-switched domain alongside the existing circuit-switched domain, most commonly implemented through General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).{{cite web |url=https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/security-mobile-systems/26010 |title=What is Second and a Half Generation (2.5G) |website=IGI Global |access-date=2019-10-06 |archive-date=2019-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006162125/https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/security-mobile-systems/26010 |url-status=live}} GPRS enables packet-based data transmission by dynamically allocating multiple timeslots to users, improving network efficiency. However, this does not inherently provide faster speeds, as similar techniques, such as timeslot bundling, are also employed in circuit-switched data services like High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD). Within GPRS-enabled 2G systems, the theoretical maximum transfer rate is 40 kbit/s (5 kB/s).{{cite web |url=https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/keywords-acronyms/102-gprs-edge |title=GPRS & EDGE |website=3gpp.org |access-date=2019-08-17 |archive-date=2020-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417193611/https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/keywords-acronyms/102-gprs-edge |url-status=live}}

= 2.75G (EDGE) =

2.75G refers to the evolution of GPRS networks into EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) networks, achieved through the introduction of 8PSK (8 Phase Shift Keying) encoding. While the symbol rate remained constant at 270.833 samples per second, the use of 8PSK allowed each symbol to carry three bits instead of one, significantly increasing data transmission efficiency. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology built as an extension to standard GSM. First deployed in 2003 by AT&T in the United States, EDGE offers a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s (48 kB/s).{{cite web |url=https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/keywords-acronyms/102-gprs-edge |title=GPRS & EDGE |website=3gpp.org |access-date=2019-08-17 |archive-date=2020-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417193611/https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/keywords-acronyms/102-gprs-edge |url-status=live}}

= 2.875G (EDGE Evolution) =

Evolved EDGE (also known as EDGE Evolution or 2.875G) is an enhancement of the EDGE mobile technology that was introduced as a late-stage upgrade to 2G networks. While EDGE was first deployed in the early 2000s as part of GSM networks, Evolved EDGE was launched much later, coinciding with the widespread adoption of 3G technologies such as HSPA and just before the emergence of 4G networks. This timing limited its practical application.

Evolved EDGE increased data throughput and reduced latencies (down to 80 ms) by utilizing improved modulation techniques, dual carrier support, dual antennas, and turbo codes. It achieved peak data rates of up to 1 Mbit/s, significantly enhancing network efficiency for operators that had not yet transitioned to 3G or 4G infrastructures. However, despite its technical improvements, Evolved EDGE was never widely deployed. By the time it became available, most network operators were focused on implementing more advanced technologies like UMTS and LTE. As of 2016, no commercial networks were reported to support Evolved EDGE.

Phase-out

2G, understood as GSM and CdmaOne, has been superseded by newer technologies such as 3G (UMTS / CDMA2000), 4G (LTE / WiMAX) and 5G (5G NR). However, 2G networks were still available {{As of|2023|lc=y}} in most parts of the world, while notably excluding the majority of carriers in North America, East Asia, and Australasia.{{cite web |url=https://www.opensignal.com/blog/2019/06/13/germanys-rural-4g-users-still-spend-one-fourth-of-their-time-on-3g-and-2g-networks |title=Germany's rural 4G users still spend one-fourth of their time on 3G and 2G networks |website=Opensignal |date=2019-06-13 |access-date=2019-10-06}}{{cite web |url=https://www.telegeography.com/products/commsupdate/articles/2019/06/17/t-mobile-poland-expects-to-keep-2g-for-five-to-six-years/index.html |title=T-Mobile Poland expects to keep 2G for five-to-six years |publisher=TeleGeography |date=2019-07-17 |access-date=2019-10-06 |archive-date=2019-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006162125/https://www.telegeography.com/products/commsupdate/articles/2019/06/17/t-mobile-poland-expects-to-keep-2g-for-five-to-six-years/index.html |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.swisscom.ch/en/about/company/portrait/network/2g-phase-out.html |title=2G phase-out – modernisation of the Swisscom mobile network |publisher=Swisscom |access-date=2019-10-06 |archive-date=2020-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406193609/https://www.swisscom.ch/en/about/company/portrait/network/2g-phase-out.html |url-status=dead}}

Many modern LTE-enabled devices have the ability to fall back to 2G for phone calls, necessary especially in rural areas where later generations have not yet been implemented.{{cite web |url=https://www.csl-group.com/uk/news/sunset-on-2g3g-mobile-networks-not-exactly.html |title=SUNSET ON 2G/3G MOBILE NETWORKS? NOT EXACTLY... |publisher=CSL Group |access-date=2023-10-16}} In some places, its successor 3G is being shut down rather than 2G – Vodafone previously announced that it had switched off 3G across Europe in 2020 but still retains 2G as a fallback service.{{cite news |url=https://www.theregister.com/2019/10/18/dont_switch_off_2g_report/ |title=Sod 3G, that can go, but don't rush to turn off 2G, UK still needs it – report |first=Kat |last=Hall |publisher=The Register |access-date=2023-10-16 |archive-date=2020-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926151011/https://www.theregister.com/2019/10/18/dont_switch_off_2g_report/ |url-status=live}} In the US T-Mobile shut down their 3G services while retaining their 2G GSM network.{{cite web |url=https://www.t-mobile.com/support/coverage/t-mobile-network-evolution |title=T-Mobile Network Evolution |publisher=T-Mobile US |access-date=2022-06-19 |archive-date=2021-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021002204/https://www.t-mobile.com/support/coverage/t-mobile-network-evolution |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.commsupdate.com/articles/2021/09/17/t-mobile-us-to-shut-down-3g-network-on-1-july-2022/ |title=T-Mobile US to shut down 3G network on 1 July 2022 |publisher=TeleGeography |date=2021-09-17 |access-date=2021-09-18 |archive-date=2022-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414193658/https://www.commsupdate.com/articles/2021/09/17/t-mobile-us-to-shut-down-3g-network-on-1-july-2022/ |url-status=live}}

Various carriers have made announcements that 2G technology in the United States, Japan, Australia, and other countries are in the process of being shut down, or have already shut down 2G services so that carriers can re-use the frequencies for newer technologies (e.g. 4G, 5G).{{cite web |url=https://www.geotab.com/blog/2g-network-shutdown/ |title=What You Need To Know About the 2G Network Shutdown |last=Serr |first=Melanie |website=Geotab Blog |date=2017-04-05 |access-date=2019-10-06 |archive-date=2019-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006162515/https://www.geotab.com/blog/2g-network-shutdown/ |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://nae.global/en/the-status-of-the-2g-3g-network-sunset/ |title=The status of the 2G/3G network sunset |publisher=nae_ global |date=2019-07-31 |access-date=2019-12-11 |archive-date=2019-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211030308/https://nae.global/en/the-status-of-the-2g-3g-network-sunset/ |url-status=live}}

As a legacy protocol, 2G connectivity is considered insecure.{{cite web |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/06/your-phone-vulnerable-because-2g-it-doesnt-have-be |title=Your Phone Is Vulnerable Because of 2G, But it Doesn't Have to Be |publisher=Electronic Frontier Foundation |date=2020-06-29 |author=Cooper Quintin and Andrés Arrieta |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416183448/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/06/your-phone-vulnerable-because-2g-it-doesnt-have-be |archive-date=2024-04-16 |url-status=live}} Specifically, there exist well known methods to attack weaknesses in GSM since 2009{{cite web |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/the_gsm_encryption_algorithm_was_broken-news-1347.php |title=The GSM encryption algorithm was broken |publisher=GSMArena |access-date=2023-10-16 |archive-date=2023-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505050751/https://www.gsmarena.com/the_gsm_encryption_algorithm_was_broken-news-1347.php |url-status=live}} with practical use in crime.{{cite web |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/china-arrests-1500-people-sending-spam-text-messages-fake-mobile-base-stations-1442099 |title=China Arrests 1,500 People for Sending Spam Text Messages from Fake Mobile Base Stations |last=Russon |first=Mary-Ann |publisher=International Business Times UK |date=2014-03-27 |access-date=2023-10-16}} Attack routes on 2G CdmaOne were found later and remain less publicized.{{cite journal |title=Side-Channel Analysis for the Authentication Protocols of CDMA Cellular Networks |journal=Journal of Computer Science and Technology |last1=Zhang |first1=Chi |last2=Liu |first2=Jun-Rong |last3=Gu |first3=Da-Wu |last4=Wang |first4=Wei-Jia |last5=Lu |first5=Xiang-Jun |last6=Guo |first6=Zheng |last7=Lu |first7=Hai-Ning |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=1079–1095 |doi=10.1007/s11390-019-1961-5 |date=2019-09-01 |s2cid=203640029}}

Android 12 and later provide a network setting to disable 2G connectivity for the device.{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/01/eff-praises-androids-new-2g-kill-switch-wants-apple-to-follow-suit/ |title=EFF praises Android's new 2G kill switch, wants Apple to follow suit |publisher=Ars Technica |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=2022-01-14 |access-date=2022-01-14}} iOS 16 and later can disable 2G connectivity by enabling Lockdown Mode.{{cite web |url=https://support.apple.com/en-us/105120 |title=About Lockdown Mode |publisher=Apple |access-date=2024-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620022230/https://support.apple.com/en-us/105120 |archive-date=2024-06-20 |url-status=live}}

= Criticism =

In some parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, 2G remains widely used for older feature phones and for internet of things (IoT) devices such as smart meters, eCall systems and vehicle trackers to avoid the high patent licensing cost of newer technologies.{{cite web |url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20210104120707mp_/https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/196632/uk-2g-infrastructure-shutdown.pdf |title=Freedom of Information: Right to know request |publisher=Ofcom |date=2020-06-03 |access-date=2023-12-28 |archive-date=2023-12-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228154740/https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20210104120707mp_/https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/196632/uk-2g-infrastructure-shutdown.pdf |url-status=live}} Terminating 2G services could leave vulnerable people who rely on 2G infrastructure unable to communicate even with emergency contacts, causing harm and possibly deaths.{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonrockman1/2019/08/01/millions-will-lose-out-when-government-kills-2g/ |title=Millions Will Lose Out When Government Kills 2G |first=Simon |last=Rockman |work=Forbes |access-date=2023-10-16 |archive-date=2020-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130234529/https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonrockman1/2019/08/01/millions-will-lose-out-when-government-kills-2g/ |url-status=live}}

= Past 2G networks =

class="wikitable sortable"

! Country

! Status

! Network

! Shutdown date

! style=width:4em | Standard

! style=width:35em | Notes

| Ålcom

| 2025-02-03

2G