Agbogbloshie

File:Korle Lagoon.jpg.]]

In the 1960s, the slum area of Agbogbloshie was a wetland. As the city of Accra urbanized, a ghetto grew, referred to as Old Fadama or Ayaalolo. During the 1980s, the ghetto was a place of shelter for refugees from the Konkomba-Nanumba war. In the late 1990s, newly available electricity from the Akosombo Dam led to increased local demand for electric and electronic appliances. Critics claim that caused an imbalanced shift.

The electricity from the Akosombo dam increased demand for functional second-hand televisions and computers, which were imported from the West by Africa's technology sector, to help "bridge the digital divide". Ghanaians welcomed the donations because the computers cost one-tenth the price of a new one. The Basel Action Network circulated a claim in 2008 that as many as 75 percent of the second-hand electronic equipment sent to Africa could not be reused and ended up in landfills.{{cite news |last1=Darko |first1=Richmond |title=Electronic Waste Dumping on Ghana Still Continues |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=188950 |work=GhanaWeb |date=25 August 2010 |department=Opinion}}

The BAN allegation was slightly different from its 2002 claim of 80% waste,{{cite report |author1-first=Jim |author1-last=Puckett |author2-first=Leslie |author2-last=Byster |author3-first=Sarah |author3-last=Westervelt |author4-first=Richard |author4-last=Gutierrez |author5-first=Sheila |author5-last=Davis |author6-first=Asma |author6-last=Hussain |author7-first=Madhumitta |author7-last=Dutta |date=25 February 2002 |title=Exporting Harm: The High-Tech Trashing of Asia |url=http://svtc.org/wp-content/uploads/technotrash.pdf |publisher=Basel Action Network & Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition}} which became one of the most cited references in academic journals, though no documentation or peer reviewed source documentation was made available.{{cite web |last1=Lepawsky |first1=John |title=From Statements to Debates II |url=https://scalar.usc.edu/works/reassembling-rubbish/mapping-e-waste-as-a-controversy-from-statements-to-debates-1?path=e-waste-mapping-a-controversy |website=Reassembling Rubbish |access-date=3 January 2022 |date=7 April 2016 |series=Mapping E-waste as a Controversy}} In 2013, BAN denied ever making the claim, or ever stating any statistic for African imports.

The local economy of Agbogbloshie is based on an onion market serving immigrants to Accra from the greater Tamale Region (Dagbani) in the north. Unemployed immigrants turned to scrap metal collection, including auto scrap, to supplement incomes. Electronic scrap processing is a fairly small activity at the market. The claim that "hundreds of millions of tons of electronic waste are imported to the area each year", as reported by several news sources, is considered by most experts to be utterly ridiculous and preposterous{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}. However, there is evidence that every month, an estimated 300 to 600 40-foot-long containers of e-waste shipments reach the ports of Ghana.{{Cite journal |last=Amuzu |first=David |date=2018-06-03 |title=Environmental injustice of informal e-waste recycling in Agbogbloshie-Accra: urban political ecology perspective |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13549839.2018.1456515 |journal=Local Environment |language=en |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=603–618 |doi=10.1080/13549839.2018.1456515 |bibcode=2018LoEnv..23..603A |s2cid=159029205 |issn=1354-9839|url-access=subscription }}

It is not clear if the United States is{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} the leading exporter of e-waste to Ghana, although imports arrive from other countries such as France, Germany, Korea, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Multinational brands such as Philips, Canon, Dell, Microsoft, Nokia, Siemens and Sony are commonly found throughout the waste. According to the E-Waste Assessment Studies, "Refurbishing of EEE [electrical and electronic equipment] and the sales of used EEE is an important economic sector (e.g. Alaba market in Lagos). It is a well-organized and a dynamic sector that holds the potential for further industrial development. Indirectly, the sector has another important economic role, as it supplies low and middle income households with affordable ICT equipment and other EEE. In the view of the sector's positive socio-economic performance, all policy measures aiming to improve e-waste management in Nigeria should refrain from undifferentiated banning of second-hand imports and refurbishing activities and strive for a co-operative approach by including the market and sector associations."

File:Agbogbloshie, Ghana 2019.jpg

Followers of BAN have alleged that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are adding to the waste when excess electronics are donated with the intention of helping scholarly institutions."European Electronic Waste in Ghana and Nigeria." Dan Watch. 25 February 2008. Web. 15 March 2011. They claim, based on the 75%-80% orphaned waste statistic, that exporters must have found numerous loopholes to avoid legislation forbidding e-waste shipping, such as labeling broken electronics as 'end-of-life' or 'second-hand-goods', falsely identifying them as in working order. If it were true that between 50% and 75% of the electronics imported are unable to be salvaged and remain on the land, the import would be illegal. However, the UN Studies have failed to find evidence of the allegation, and the only source of the dumping statistic has denied it.

Young men burning wires from auto harnesses and electronics have been the subject of several photojournal essays.{{Cite web|title = Photos of e-waste found on Flickr {{!}} transmediale|url = http://transmediale.de/content/photos-e-waste-found-flickr|website = transmediale.de|access-date = 2016-02-17}} The workers disassemble cars, appliances, and scrap electronics, gathered in wheeled push carts from Accra neighborhoods. The revenue from the recovery of metals such as copper, aluminium and iron, is very small. Several news outlets covered the plight of the recycling workers.{{cite news |last1=Monbiot |first1=George |title=From toxic waste to toxic assets, the same people always get dumped on |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2009/sep/21/global-fly-tipping-toxic-waste |work=The Guardian |date=21 September 2009}} Photographs of workers burning old wire on top of tires and plastic in order to melt the plastic, or dismantling the waste using their bare hands or stones, were documented by the press. Magnets from electronics are shown used to gather the smallest of ferrous metal scraps. The remaining materials were further burned or dumped nearby.

The workers, children and adults alike, sell the metal scraps to earn a living. A half a sack of copper or aluminium will sell for about {{currency|700|GHS}}, amounting to about {{currency|8|GHS}}{{nbh}}10 Ghana cedis per day ({{currency|4|USD}}{{nbh}}6).{{cite news |last1=Nuvor |first1=Francisca |title=Ghana: E-waste becoming business |url=http://www.africanews.com/site/list_message/33018 |work=AfricaNews |date=28 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329061245/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_message/33018 |archive-date=29 March 2012}}

The informal e-waste recycling industry is highly hierarchical, with burners, collectors, and dismantlers, often the entry point for young people, representing the "lowest" class. Developing enough knowledge, networking, and capital can then allow people to attain higher ranks. The Greater Accra Scrap Dealers Association (GASDA), a group formed by the workers themselves, established certain rules and regulations, and even cooperated with the National Youth Authority, a governmental organization.

Upwards of 85 per cent of electronics and electrical parts imported into Ghana are from the EU, and a large proportion is dumped as e-waste after entering the country. Only 35 per cent of second-hand and waste electronics in Europe end up in official recycling and collection systems.{{Cite magazine |title=Your old electronics are poisoning people at this toxic dump in Ghana |language=en-GB |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/ghana-ewaste-dump-electronics |access-date=2022-12-12 |issn=1357-0978}} The reason for that is the cost of complying with EU regulations for discarding e-waste. Avoiding those costs of compliance (mainly de-pollution), is estimated at €150 million to €600 million (US$165 million to $658 million) annually.{{Cite web |title=Discarded Electronics Mismanaged within Europe Equals ~10 Times the Volume of E-waste Exported - United Nations University |url=https://unu.edu/media-relations/releases/discarded-electronics-mismanaged-in-europe-is-10x-volume-of-e-waste-exports.html |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=unu.edu |language=en-US}}

The population of Agbogbloshie consisted of economic migrants from northern and rural parts of Ghana, where living standards are growing worse, causing people to move to urban settings, such as Agbogbloshie. Conditions may not have been significantly better, but making a living is easier, in the immediate sense. Inhabitants of Agbogbloshie lived, ate, worked and relieved themselves on the land and amongst the waste. Children who were able to attend school often spent every evening and weekend processing waste and searching for metals.{{cite news |last1=Claiborne |first1=Ron |title=U.S. Electronic Waste Gets Sent to Africa |url=https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Weekend/story?id=8215714 |access-date=3 January 2022 |work=Good Morning America |agency=ABC News |date=2 August 2009 |location=Accra, Ghana}}

Dwellings were wooden shacks that lacked water and sanitation. The area was also home to armed robbers, prostitutes, drug dealers and others involved in underground markets. Crime and disease ran rampant throughout Agbogbloshie, creating an almost uninhabitable environment for humans. Due to the harsh living conditions in Agbogbloshie, outsiders nicknamed the area "Sodom and Gomorrah", after the two condemned Biblical cities.

File:Agbogbloshie, Ghana - September 2019.jpg

The dumping and processing of electronic waste in Agbogbloshie severely contaminated the air, land, and water in the entire area. Photographs from the Agbogbloshie e-waste landfill showed scrap workers burning wires from auto harnesses and plastic-encased electronics to recover copper.{{Cite web|url=https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/video-photos-agbogbloshie-ghana|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214084451/https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/video-photos-agbogbloshie-ghana|url-status=usurped|archive-date=December 14, 2018|title=Video and Photos of Agbogbloshie, Ghana|last=Chasant|first=Muntaka|date=2018-12-09|website=ATC MASK|access-date=2018-12-14}} When the E-waste is broken down, burned and processed, toxic chemicals that are released into the ground, water and atmosphere. Poisons such as lead, mercury, arsenic, dioxins, furans, and brominated flame retardants seep into the surrounding soil and water, thereby seriously polluting the landscape. Greenpeace laboratory tests showed that water and soil from areas in Agbogbloshie had concentrations of chemicals at levels over a hundred times greater than the allowable amounts.

File:E-waste workers.jpg

Several studies confirmed high levels of lead in the soil, with particular risks to workers and children.{{Cite journal|title = Assessing Worker and Environmental Chemical Exposure Risks at an e-Waste Recycling and Disposal Site in Accra, Ghana|journal = Journal of Health and Pollution|date = 2011-02-01|issn = 2156-9614|pages = 16–25|volume = 1|issue = 1|doi = 10.5696/jhp.v1i1.22|first1 = Jack|last1 = Caravanos|first2 = Edith|last2 = Clark|first3 = Richard|last3 = Fuller|first4 = Calah|last4 = Lambertson|doi-access = free}} Environmental lead contamination was predominantly due to burning the plastic covering of copper wires. PVC electrical insulation contains approximately 3000 mg/kg lead as a stiffener and ultraviolet inhibitor, and that lead is released during the burning.{{Cite journal|title = Assessing Levels of Lead Contamination in Soil and Predicting Pediatric Blood Lead Levels in Tema, Ghana|journal = Journal of Health and Pollution|date = 2013-06-01|issn = 2156-9614|pages = 7–12|volume = 3|issue = 5|doi = 10.5696/2156-9614-3.5.7|first1 = Innocent Joy Kwame|last1 = Aboh|first2 = Manukure Atiemo|last2 = Sampson|first3 = Leticia Abra-Kom|last3 = Nyaab|first4 = Jack|last4 = Caravanos|first5 = Francis Gorman|last5 = Ofosu|first6 = Harriet|last6 = Kuranchie-Mensah|doi-access = free}}

The contamination levels of chlorinated and brominated dioxin-related compounds (DRCs) in the soil of Agbogbloshie were among the highest so far reported from informal e-waste recycling sites. Concentrations of several other toxic equivalents regularly exceeded acceptable levels set by Japanese, German, or American governments almost three- to sevenfold.{{Cite journal |last1=Tue |first1=Nguyen Minh |last2=Goto |first2=Akitoshi |last3=Takahashi |first3=Shin |last4=Itai |first4=Takaaki |last5=Asante |first5=Kwadwo Ansong |last6=Kunisue |first6=Tatsuya |last7=Tanabe |first7=Shinsuke |date=2016-01-25 |title=Release of chlorinated, brominated and mixed halogenated dioxin-related compounds to soils from open burning of e-waste in Agbogbloshie (Accra, Ghana) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389415301175 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |language=en |volume=302 |pages=151–157 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.09.062 |pmid=26474377 |bibcode=2016JHzM..302..151T |issn=0304-3894|url-access=subscription }}

In April 2019, The Guardian reported that a study for IPEN and the Basel Action Network found dangerous levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS) in the eggs of chicken at Agbogbloshie.{{cite news |last1=Beaumont |first1=Peter |title=Rotten eggs: e-waste from Europe poisons Ghana's food chain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/apr/24/rotten-chicken-eggs-e-waste-from-europe-poisons-ghana-food-chain-agbogbloshie-accra |access-date=3 January 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=24 April 2019}} The scientific study published by Arnika, IPEN, and CREPD revealed that eggs from backyard farming in Agbogbloshie contained very high concentrations of other persistent organic pollutants, specifically short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), brominated dioxins (PBDD/Fs), hexachlorobenzene, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers.{{Cite book |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332594125 |title=Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Eggs: Report from Africa |vauthors=Petrlik J, Adu-Kumi S, Hogarh J, Akortia E, Kuepouo G, Behnisch P, Bell L, DiGangi J |publisher=Arnika/IPEN/CREPD |year=2019 |location=Accra-Yaoundé-Gothenburg-Prague |pages=48 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.34124.46723}} A study published in "Emerging Contaminants" found that the chicken eggs from Agbogbloshie had the highest PCDD/F-dl-PCB-TEQ (International Toxic Equivalents) ever measured, with a value of 856 pgTEQ/g fat.{{Cite journal |last1=Petrlik |first1=Jindrich |author-link=Jindřich Petrlík |last2=Bell |first2=Lee |last3=DiGangi |first3=Joe |last4=Allo'o Allo'o |first4=Serge Molly |last5=Kuepouo |first5=Gilbert |last6=Ochola |first6=Griffins Ochieng |last7=Grechko |first7=Valeriya |last8=Jelinek |first8=Nikola |last9=Strakova |first9=Jitka |last10=Skalsky |first10=Martin |author-link10=Martin Skalský |last11=Drwiega |first11=Yuyun Ismawati |author-link11=Yuyun Ismawati |last12=Hogarh |first12=Jonathan N. |last13=Akortia |first13=Eric |last14=Adu-Kumi |first14=Sam |last15=Teebthaisong |first15=Akarapon |date=2022-01-01 |title=Monitoring dioxins and PCBs in eggs as sensitive indicators for environmental pollution and global contaminated sites and recommendations for reducing and controlling releases and exposure |journal=Emerging Contaminants |volume=8 |pages=254–279 |doi=10.1016/j.emcon.2022.05.001 |s2cid=249113916 |issn=2405-6650|doi-access=free }}

Glass containing lead, used in computer monitors (CRT tubes) also contributed to elevated soil lead levels.

The Korle Lagoon, on which Agbogbloshie is situated, had extremely low levels of dissolved oxygen, a result of the large and uncontrolled quantities of domestic and industrial waste being released into the water. Studies indicated that the entrance to the lagoon was severely polluted and not suitable for primary or secondary contact, due to the large amount of bacteria present.{{cite journal |last1=Karikari |first1=A. Y. |last2=Asante |first2=K. A. |last3=Biney |first3=C. A. |title=Water quality characteristics at the estuary of Korle Lagoon in Ghana |journal=West African Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2006 |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.4314/wajae.v10i1.45700 |doi-access=free}}

One egg from a free-range chicken in the area was tested and found to have 220 times the amount of chlorinated dioxins (which can cause cancer and damage the immune system) that the European Food Safety Authority considers safe to consume. Because of that, nearly 80,000 inhabitants living either in or near the Agbogloshie slum were affected by the toxins in the food.{{Cite news |date=2019-05-29 |title=The Rich World's Electronic Waste, Dumped in Ghana |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-05-29/the-rich-world-s-electronic-waste-dumped-in-ghana |access-date=2022-12-12}}

Processing electronic waste presented a serious health threat to workers at Agbogbloshie. The fumes released from the burning of the plastics and metals used in electronics are composed of highly toxic chemicals and carcinogens. Workers often inhaled lead, cadmium, dioxins, furans, phthalates, and brominated flame retardants.

File:Agbogbloshie waste.jpg

Exposure to those fumes is especially hazardous to children, because the toxins are known to inhibit the development of the reproductive system, the nervous system, and the brain in particular. In similar e-waste processing areas, with conditions and demographics like those of Agbogbloshie, 80% of the children have dangerous levels of lead in their blood. Inhabitants often suffer from chronic nausea, headaches, chest and respiratory problems.{{Cite journal|title = Exploratory Health Assessment of Chemical Exposures at E-Waste Recycling and Scrapyard Facility in Ghana|journal = Journal of Health and Pollution|date = 2013-01-01|issn = 2156-9614|pages = 11–22|volume = 3|issue = 4|doi = 10.5696/2156-9614-3.4.11|first1 = Jack|last1 = Caravanos|first2 = Edith E.|last2 = Clarke|first3 = Carl S.|last3 = Osei|first4 = Yaw|last4 = Amoyaw-Osei|doi-access = free}}

High levels of toxins were also discovered in soil and food samples, because those chemicals stay in the food chain.

There is evidence that, because they lack the critical education necessary, electronic waste workers possess little knowledge and awareness about the hazards associated with informal e-waste processing, and some attribute their health issues to other sources, such as malaria or exposure to the sun.{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Emily A. |last2=Akormedi |first2=Matthew |last3=Asampong |first3=Emmanuel |last4=Meyer |first4=Christian G. |last5=Fobil |first5=Julius N. |date=December 2017 |title=Informal processing of electronic waste at Agbogbloshie, Ghana: workers' knowledge about associated health hazards and alternative livelihoods |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1757975916631523 |journal=Global Health Promotion |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=90–98 |doi=10.1177/1757975916631523 |pmid=27271535 |s2cid=25362314 |issn=1757-9759|url-access=subscription }}

E-waste presents a potential security threat to individuals and exporting countries. Hard drives that are not properly erased before the computer is disposed of can be reopened, exposing sensitive information. Credit card numbers, private financial data, account information, and records of online transactions, can be accessed by those with the necessary knowledge. Organized criminals in Ghana commonly search the drives for information to use in local scams.

Government contracts were discovered on hard drives found in Agbogbloshie. Multimillion-dollar agreements from United States security institutions, such as the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the Transportation Security Administration and Homeland Security, all resurfaced in Agbogbloshie.{{cite news |last1=Doctorow |first1=Cory |title=Illegal e-waste dumped in Ghana includes unencrypted hard drives full of US security secrets |url=https://boingboing.net/2009/06/25/illegal-e-waste-dump.html |access-date=3 January 2022 |work=Slashdot |agency=Boing Boing |date=25 June 2009}}

File:Refuse dump 6.jpg

The Ghanaian government has made an effort to restore the area through the "Korle Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project" (KLERP). In 2003, the OPEC Fund for International Development, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, and the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development provided a loan for the project, with the expectation that the Ghanaian government would dredge the lagoon and restore its surroundings. Other goals of the project included a reduction in flooding, an increase in marine life, an improvement of water quality, and an improvement in general sanitary conditions.{{cite web |title=Korle Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project |url=http://www.adk-consortium.biz/AboutMe.aspx |website=ADK Consortium |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706144259/http://www.adk-consortium.biz/AboutMe.aspx |archive-date=6 July 2011}}

Due to the invasive nature of the project, those restoration efforts were disputed by the inhabitants of Agbogbloshie. The KLERP required people to leave the area, which was the only home for a majority of squatters. The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) continually tried to evict people, but were met with a great deal of resistance.

In 2014, the NGO Pure Earth (formally Blacksmith Institute) funded the creation of a Copper Wire Recycling Center within Agbogbloshie, and helped to install several automated machines to simplify the removal of plastic coating and reduce burning.{{Cite web|title = E-Waste Recycling - Agbogbloshie, Ghana - Pure Earth|url = http://www.pureearth.org/project/agbobloshie-e-waste/|website = Pure Earth|access-date = 2016-02-17|language = en-US}} The efforts appeared to be moderately successful, but burning continued.

From 2017, the German government supported Ghana in introducing sustainable e-waste management.{{Cite news |last=Kaledzi |first=Isaac |date=19 March 2017 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/germany-supports-e-waste-disposal-in-ghana/a-38015011|title=Germany supports e-waste disposal in Ghana|website=Deutsche Welle}} The E-waste programme was implemented by Deutsche Gesellschaft für internationale Zusammenarbeit in partnership with Ghanaian Ministry of Environment Science Technology and Innovation (MESTI).{{cite news |title=Ghana's biggest e-waste yard receives face-lift |url=https://mesti.gov.gh/ghanas-biggest-e-waste-yard-receives-face-lift/ |access-date=3 January 2022 |work=Ghana News Agency |agency=Ministry of Environment, Sciency, Technology and Innovation |date=28 March 2019}} In March 2019, a training facility, a Ghana Health service clinic, and a football pitch, were provided.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/A-glimmer-of-hope-comes-to-Agbogbloshie-734022|title = A glimmer of hope comes to Agbogbloshie|date = 29 March 2019}}

• The official video of the Placebo cover of Talk Talk's song "Life's What You Make It" starts with "This film is dedicated to the workers of Agbogbloshie", and ends with "When you get rid of your cellphone, computer and home appliances, your cast-offs often go on a voyage across the oceans to Agbogbloshie. Agbogbloshie is a former wetland, which is now home to one of the world's largest electronic waste dumps. Here, young men and boys smash and burn electronic devices to salvage the metals inside them". The whole video was shot on site at Agbogbloshie.
• The murder mystery Children of the Street, by Ghanaian author Kwei Quartey, is partially set in Agbogbloshie, and references its e-waste salvaging industry.

On 1 July 2021, the Ghanian Government began demolishing and clearing the Agbogbloshie settlement and recycling site.{{cite web |last1=Chasant |first1=Muntaka |title=Agbogbolshie Demolition:The End of An Era or An Injustice |url=https://www.muntaka.com/agbogbloshie-demolition/ |website=muntaka.com |access-date=2024-09-11}}

• Guiyu (town), an electronic waste site in China

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Commons}}

• [https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/inside-a-massive-electronics-graveyard/383922/ Inside a Massive Electronics Graveyard] The Atlantic, December 2014
• {{YouTube|YvkRnEv6WG8|Placebo - Life's What You Make It (Official Video)}}
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVnu0doouJI The World's Junkyard for Electronic Scrap: Digital Dumping in Ghana] ENDEVR Documentary, 2022

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Category:Electronic waste in Africa

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