Ahl al-Bayt

When {{Transl|ar|ahl}} ({{langx|ar|أَهْل|label=none}}) appears in construction with a person, it refers to his blood relatives. However, the word also acquires wider meanings with other nouns.{{Sfn|Sharon}} In particular, {{Transl|ar|bayt}} ({{Langx|ar|بَيْت|label=none}}) is translated as 'habitation' and 'dwelling',{{Sfn|Leaman|2006}} and thus the basic translation of {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} is '(the) inhabitants of the house'.{{Sfn|Sharon}} That is, {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} literally translates to '(the) people of the house'. In the absence of the definite article {{Transl|ar|al-}}, the literal translation of {{Transl|ar|ahl bayt}} is 'household'.{{Sfn|Sharon}}

The phrase {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} appears three times in the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, in relation to Abraham (11:73), Moses (28:12), and Muhammad (33:33).{{Sfn|Sharon}} For Abraham and Moses, {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} in the Quran is unanimously interpreted as their families.{{Sfn|Sharon}} Yet merit is also a criterion of membership in a prophet's family in the Quran.{{Sfn|Leaman|2006}} That is, pagan or disloyal members of the families of the past prophets are not excluded from God's punishment.{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=10}} In particular, Noah's family is saved from the deluge, except his wife and one of his sons, about whom Noah's plea was rejected according to verse 11:46, "O Noah, he [your son] is not of your family ({{Transliteration|ar|ahl}})."{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=9, 10}} Families of the past prophets are often given a prominent role in the Quran.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=|p=8}} Therein, their kin are selected by God as the spiritual and material heirs to the prophets.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=|p=17}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=14-16}}

The family of Muhammad, who are called {{Transl|ar|Ahl al-Bayt}}, are mentioned in verse 33:33 of the Quran, {{Sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015}} also known as the Verse of Purification. {{Sfn|Abbas|2021}} The final part of the Verse of Purification states:

{{quote|{{lang|ar|إِنَّمَا يُرِيدُ اللَّهُ لِيُذْهِبَ عَنْكُمُ الرِّجْسَ أَهْلَ الْبَيْتِ وَيُطَهِّرَكُمْ تَطْهِيرًا}}|Allah only desires to keep away the uncleanness from you, O people of the household (Ahl al-Bayt), and purify you with a thorough purification. (Al-Aḥzāb:33) {Al-Qur'an}|title=}} {{Cite quran|33|33|source=quran.com}}

Muslims have disagreed about who Muhammad's {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} were and what privileges or political responsibilities they possessed. {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}}

Most hadiths and al-Tabari (d. 923) in his exegesis identified the Ahl al-Bayt with the Ahl al-Kisa, that is, Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn. {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} {{Sfn|Madelung|1997}} {{Sfn|Algar|1984}} These hadiths were also narrated by some early Sunni authorities, including Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), al-Suyuti (d. 1505), al-Hafiz al-Kabir, {{Sfn|Mavani|2013}} and Ibn Kathir (d. 1373). {{Sfn|Lalani|2000}} Similarly, the Sunni collection Sunnan Tirmidhi holds that Muhammad limited the Ahl al-Bayt to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons when the Verse of Purification was revealed to him. {{Sfn|Momen|1985}}

Muhammad's wife Ummu Salama narrated in (possibly the earliest version of) {{Sfn|Soufi|1997}} the Hadith al-Kisa that Muhammad gathered Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn under his cloak and prayed, saying, "O God, these are my {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} and my closest relatives; remove impurity from them and purify them completely." {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} The Sunni accounts of Ibn Kathir and al-Suyuti and the Shia Tabatabai (d. 1981) continue that Umm Salama asked Muhammad, "Am I with you, O Messenger of God?" but received a negative reply, "You will attain good. You will attain good." {{Sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015}} {{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2022}} There exists a version of this hadith in Sunni sources where Umm Salama is included within the Ahl al-Bayt. within the Ahl al-Bayt {{Sfn|Soufi|1997}}

It is said that Muhammad would recite the final part of the Verse of Purification every morning when he passed by Fatima's house to remind its inhabitants of the Fajr (prayer). {{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2022a}} In the event of Mubahala, Muhammad is believed to have gathered Ali, Fatima, and their sons under his cloak and called them the "Ahl al-Bayt", as narrated by Shia and some Sunni sources {{Sfn|Momen|1985}} {{Sfn|Algar|1984}} including Sahih Muslim and Sunan al-Tirmidhi . {{Sfn|Momen|1985}}

This identification of the Ahl al-Bayt {{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2022a}} is predominantly reported in Shia sources. {{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2022}} In Shia theological works, the Ahl al-Bayt often include the other Shia Imams. {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} . {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} {{Sfn|Esposito|2004}} {{Sfn|Glassé|2003}} Shia view the Verse of Purification as evidence for the infallibility ({{Transl|ar|ma'sum}}) of the Ahl al-Bayt. {{Sfn|Howard|1984}}

Possibly because the initial address in the Verse of Purification is to Muhammad's wives, {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} some Sunni authors (such as al-Wahidi) exclusively identified the Ahl al-Bayt as Muhammad's wives. {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} Others have noted that the final part of this verse does not match the preceding address in grammar (masculine plural vs. feminine plural). Therefore, the Ahl al-Bayt are not exclusively Muhammad's wives nor are they excluded. {{Sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015}} {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} {{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2022a}} Ibn Kathir, for example, included Ali, Fatima, and their two sons. {{Sfn|Howard|1984}}

Some Sunni hadiths, including those narrated by Ibn Abbas and Ikrima, support the inclusion of Muhammad's wives in the Ahl al-Bayt. {{Sfn|Madelung|1997}} Alternatively, Leaman views that marriage to the prophet does not guarantee inclusion in the {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}}. He argues that, in verse 11:73, {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} Sarah was part of the {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} of Abraham only after receiving news of her being closely related to two prophets, Isaac and Jacob. Similarly, Leaman points out that Moses' mother is designated as a member of the {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} in verse 28:12, not because she married Imran, but because of her being Moses' mother. {{Sfn|Leaman|2006}}

Regarding their claim to inclusion in the Ahl al-Bayt, the Abbasids pointed out that noble and chaste women could not be considered a source of their lineage ({{Transl|ar|nasab}}). They also argued that Muhammad's paternal uncle Abbas was equivalent to a father after the death of Muhammad's father. {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Jafri|1979}}

As mentioned above, some Sunni authors broadened the application of the term to include in the Ahl al-Bayt Muhammad's relatives (the Banu Hashim), {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Campo|2004}} the Banu Muttalib, {{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2022}} the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas (the Abbasids), {{Sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015}} {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} and even the descendants of Umayya (the Umayyads), Hashim's brother. {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} In particular, there is an Abbasid version of the Hadith al-Kisa in Sunni sources which may have been intended to bolster the Abbasid claims to inclusion in the Ahl al-Bayt. {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} {{Sfn|Thurlkill|2008}} This notion was the cornerstone of the Abbasid claim to the caliphate. {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} Likewise, the Sunni Hadith al-Thaqalayn identifies the Ahl al-Bayt with the descendants of Ali and his brothers (Aqil and Jafar), as well as Muhammad's uncle, Abbas. {{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2022}} {{Sfn|Howard|1984}}

Abu Bakr and Umar were also included in the Ahl al-Bayt by some and their supporters due to their being Muhammad's fathers-in-law. These and accounts relating to the inclusion of the Banu Umayya in the Ahl al-Bayt may have been later responses to the Abbasid claims of Ahl al-Bayt inclusion and their bid for legitimacy, according to Brunner. {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} The term has also been interpreted as the tribe of Quraysh, {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} or even the entire Muslim community by others. {{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2022}} {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} For example, Paret identified {{Transl|ar|bayt}} (lit. 'house') in the Verse of Purification with the Ka'ba, although his thesis has found few followers, notably Sharon. {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} {{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} {{Sfn|Madelung|1997}}

The main controversy regarding the Ahl al-Bayt is the identification of the Ahl al-Bayt with the Ahl al-Kisa (Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan & Husayn) versus the inclusion of Muhammad's wives, {{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2022}} which may represent the majority view of early Sunni exegetes. {{Sfn|Soufi|1997}} This view is reflected in Sharon's survey of different opinions {{Sfn|Sharon|2004}} and shared by Goldziher and his co-authors, {{Sfn|Howard|1984}} although Madelung includes the Banu Hashim in the Ahl al-Bayt due to their kinship with Muhammad. {{Sfn|Madelung|1997}}

In contrast, Shia Islam exclusively limits the Ahl al-Bayt to Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn, citing numerous authentic hadiths found in both Sunni and Shia sources. {{Sfn|Momen|1985}} {{Sfn|Leaman|2006}} Veccia Vaglieri and Jafri support their view. {{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2022a}} {{Sfn|Jafri|1979}}

{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |total_width=220

|image1=Site of the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg |caption1=Mecca was the birthplace of Muhammad and members of his family, including Ali and Fatima, prior to their migration to Medina in 622. Pictured here is Meccatul Mukarrama Library, also known as Bayt al-Mawlid, because it is believed to stand on the spot where Muhammad was born.

|image2=Nothing but Pigeons. Baqee, Madina (3144084879) (cropped).jpg |caption2=Medina became the home to the Ahl al-Bayt after their migration from Mecca. Pictured in the background is the tomb (marked by the Green Dome) and mosque of Muhammad. In the foreground is the Baqi' cemetery, wherein Hasan and some other relatives of Muhammad are buried.

|image3=001123-ImamAliShrine-Najaf-IMG 7707-2.jpg |caption3=After the deaths of Muhammad and Fatima in Medina in 632, some of their relatives, including Husayn and Ali, migrated to Iraq and died there. Pictured in the background is the shrine in Najaf where Ali is commonly believed to have been buried, after his assassination in the neighbouring city of Kufa in Iraq.

}}

The household of Muhammad, often referred to as the Ahl al-Bayt, appear in verse 33:33 of the Quran,{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2331}} also known as the verse of purification.{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=65}} The last passage of the verse of purification reads, "God only desires to remove defilement from you, O {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}}, and to purify you completely."{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2331}} Muslims disagree as to who belongs to Muhammad's {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} and what privileges or responsibilities they have.{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}}

{{See also|Ahl al-Kisa}}

File:کتیبه_پنج_تن.jpg, located in Karbala, Iraq]]

The majority of the traditions quoted by the Sunni exegete al-Tabari ({{Died in|923}}) identify the Ahl al-Bayt with the Ahl al-Kisa, namely, Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, her husband Ali, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.{{Sfn|Howard|1984}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=14{{ndash}}15}}{{Sfn|Algar|2011}} Such reports are also cited in {{Transl|ar|Sahih Muslim}}, {{Transl|ar|Sunnan al-Tirmidhi}}, {{Transl|ar|Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal}},{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=16-7, 325}}{{Sfn|Shomali|2003|pp=58{{ndash}}59, 62{{ndash}}63}} all canonical Sunni collections of hadith, and by some other Sunni authorities, including al-Suyuti ({{Died in|1505}}), al-Hafiz al-Kabir,{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=71}} al-Hakim al-Nishapuri ({{Died in|1014}}),{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2007|p=61n17}} and Ibn Kathir ({{Died in|1373}}).{{Sfn|Lalani|2000|p=|pp=69, 147}}

In possibly the earliest version of the Ahl al-Kisa,{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|p=6}} Muhammad's wife Umm Salama relates that he gathered Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn under his cloak and prayed, "O God, these are my {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} and my closest family members; remove defilement from them and purify them completely."{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} Some accounts continue that Umm Salama then asked Muhammad, "Am I with thee, O Messenger of God?" but received the negative response, "Thou shalt obtain good. Thou shalt obtain good." Among others, such reports are given in {{Transl|ar|Sunnan al-Tirmidhi}}, {{Transl|ar|Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal}},{{Sfn|Shomali|2003|p=62}} and by Ibn Kathir, al-Suyuti, and the Shia exegete Muhammad H. Tabatabai ({{Died in|1981}}).{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2331}} Yet another Sunni version of this hadith appends Umm Salama to the Ahl al-Bayt.{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}} In another Sunni version, Muhammad's servant Wathila bint al-Asqa' is also counted in the Ahl al-Bayt.{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|pp=7{{ndash}}8}}

Elsewhere in {{Transl|ar|Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal}}, Muhammad is said to have recited the last passage in the verse of purification every morning when he passed by Fatima's house to remind her household of the morning prayer.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012}}{{Sfn|Shomali|2003|p=63}} In his {{Transl|ar|mubahala}} ({{Lit|mutual cursing}}) with a delegation of Najrani Christians, Muhammad is also believed to have gathered the above four under his cloak and referred to them as his {{Transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}}, according to Shia and some Sunni sources,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=16}}{{Sfn|Algar|2011}} including {{Transl|ar|Sahih Muslim}} and {{Transl|ar|Sunan al-Tirmidhi}}.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=16, 325}} This makeup of the Ahl al-Bayt is echoed by the Islamicist Laura Veccia Vaglieri ({{Died in|1989}}),{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012}} and also reported unanimously in Shia sources.{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}} In Shia theology works, the Ahl al-Bayt often also includes the remaining Shia imams.{{Sfn|Howard|1984}} The term is sometimes loosely applied in Shia writings to all descendants of Ali and Fatima.{{Sfn|Howard|1984}}{{Sfn|Esposito|2003|p=9}}{{Sfn|Glassé|2001}}

{{see also|Wives of Muhammad}}

File:Alahzab_01.jpg period]]

Perhaps because the earlier injunctions in the verse of purification are addressed at Muhammad's wives,{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} some Sunni authors, such as al-Wahidi ({{Died in|1075}}), have exclusively interpreted the Ahl al-Bayt as Muhammad's wives.{{Sfn|Howard|1984}}{{Sfn|Sharon}} Others have noted that the last passage of this verse is grammatically inconsistent with the previous injunctions (masculine plural versus feminine plural pronouns).{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=35}} Thus the Ahl al-Bayt is not or is not limited to Muhammad's wives.{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2331}}{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012}} Ibn Kathir, for instance, includes Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in the Ahl al-Bayt, in addition to Muhammad's wives.{{Sfn|Howard|1984}} Indeed, certain Sunni hadiths support the inclusion of Muhammad's wives in the Ahl al-Bayt, including some reports on the authority of Ibn Abbas and Ikrima, two early Muslim figures.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=15}}

Alternatively, the Islamicist Oliver Leaman proposes that marriage to a prophet does not guarantee inclusion in his {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}}. He argues that, in verse 11:73,{{Sfn|Sharon}} Sara is included in Abraham's {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} only after receiving the news of her imminent motherhood to two prophets, Isaac and Jacob. Likewise, Leaman suggests that Moses' mother is counted as a member of {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} in verse 28:12, not for being married to Imran, but for being the mother of Moses.{{Sfn|Leaman|2006}} Similarly, in their bid for inclusion in the Ahl al-Bayt, the Abbasids argued that women, noble and holy as they may be, could not be considered a source of pedigree ({{Transliteration|ar|nasab}}). As the descendants of Muhammad's paternal uncle Abbas, they claimed that he was equal to Muhammad's father after the latter died.{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=195}}

As hinted above, some Sunni authors have broadened its application to include in the Ahl al-Bayt the clan of Muhammad (Banu Hashim),{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Campo|2004}} the Banu Muttalib,{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}} the Abbasids,{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2331}}{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Howard|1984}} and even the Umayyads, who had descended from Hashim's nephew Umayya.{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}}{{Sfn|Howard|1984}} Indeed, another Sunni version of the hadith al-kisa is evidently intended to append the Abbasids to the Ahl al-Bayt.{{Sfn|Howard|1984}} This Abbasid claim was in turn the cornerstone of their bid for legitimacy.{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} Similarly, a Sunni version of the Hadith of the thaqalayn defines the Ahl al-Bayt as the descendants of Ali and his brothers (Aqil and Jafar), and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}}{{Sfn|Howard|1984}}

The first two Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, have also been included in the Ahl al-Bayt in some Sunni reports, as they were both fathers-in-law of Muhammad. Nevertheless, these and the accounts about the inclusion of the Umayyads in the Ahl al-Bayt might have been later reactions to the Abbasid claims to inclusion in the Ahl al-Bayt and their own bid for legitimacy.{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} The term has also been interpreted as the Meccan tribe of Quraysh,{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} or the whole Muslim community.{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}}{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} For instance, the Islamicist Rudi Paret ({{Died in|1983}}) identifies {{Transl|ar|bayt}} ({{lit|house}}) in the verse of purification with the Kaaba, located in the holiest site in Islam. However, his theory has only found few supporters, notably Moshe Sharon, another expert.{{Sfn|Sharon}}{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=11}}

A typical Sunni compromise is to define the Ahl al-Bayt as the Ahl al-Kisa (Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, Husayn) together with Muhammad's wives,{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}} which might also reflect the majority opinion of medieval Sunni exegetes.{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|p=16}} Among modern Islamicists, this view is shared by Ignác Goldziher ({{Died in|1921}}) and his coauthors,{{Sfn|Howard|1984}} and mentioned by Sharon,{{Sfn|Sharon}} while Wilferd Madelung ({{Died in|2023}}) also includes the Banu Hashim in the Ahl al-Bayt in view of their blood relation to Muhammad.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=15}} In contrast, Shia limits the Ahl al-Bayt to Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn, pointing to authentic traditions in Sunni and Shia sources.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=16, 17}}{{Sfn|Leaman|2006}}{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=35}} Their view is supported by Veccia Vaglieri and Husain M. Jafri ({{Died in|2019}}), another expert.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012}}

Families and descendants of the past prophets hold a prominent position in the Quran. Therein, their descendants become spiritual and material heirs to keep their fathers' covenants intact.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=8-12}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=15-17}} Muhammad's kin are also mentioned in the Quran in various contexts.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=12}}

{{Main article|Verse of the mawadda}}

Known as the verse of the {{transl|ar|mawadda}} ({{Lit|affection|love}}), verse 42:23 of the Quran contains the passage, "[O Mohammad!] Say, 'I ask not of you any reward for it, save affection among kinsfolk.'"{{Sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2691}} The Shia-leaning historian Ibn Ishaq ({{Died in|767}}) narrates that Muhammad specified {{transl|ar|al-qurba}} in this verse as Ali, Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=|pp=41, 60}} This is also the view of some Sunni scholars, including al-Razi ({{Died in|1209}}), Baydawi ({{Died in|1319}}),{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=152}} and Ibn al-Maghazili.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=|pp=41, 60}} Most Sunni authors, however, reject the Shia view and offer various alternatives,{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=2691}} chief among them is that this verse enjoins love for kinsfolk in general.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=13}}{{Sfn|Gril|}} In Twelver Shia, the love in the verse of the {{transl|ar|mawadda}} also entails obedience to the Ahl al-Bayt as the source of exoteric and esoteric religious guidance.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=41|pp=}}{{sfn|Lalani|2000|pp=|p=66}}

{{Main article|Event of the mubahala}}

A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=13{{ndash}}14}}{{Sfn|Schmucker|2012}} During their stay, the two parties may have also debated the nature of Jesus, human or divine, although the delegation ultimately rejected the Islamic belief,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=16}} which acknowledges the miraculous birth of Jesus but dismisses the Christians' belief in his divinity.{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|pp=378{{ndash}}379}} Linked to this ordeal is verse 3:61 of the Quran.{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|pp=|p=379}} This verse instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to {{Transl|ar|mubahala}} ({{Lit|mutual cursing}}),{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=35}} perhaps when the debate had reached a deadlock.{{Sfn|Osman|2015|p=110}}{{Blockquote|text=And to whosoever disputes with thee over it, after the knowledge that has come unto thee, say, "Come! Let us call upon our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves. Then let us pray earnestly, so as to place the curse of God upon those who lie."{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|p=379}}}}The delegation withdrew from the challenge and negotiated for peace.{{Sfn|Schmucker|2012}} The majority of reports indicate that Muhammad appeared for the occasion of the {{Transl|ar|mubahala}}, accompanied by Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn.{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=36}} Such reports are given by Ibn Ishaq,{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015}} al-Razi,{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015}} Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj ({{Died in|875}}), Hakim al-Nishapuri,{{Sfn|Osman|2015|p=140n42}} and Ibn Kathir.{{sfn|Nasr et al.|2015|pp=|p=380}} The inclusion of these four relatives by Muhammad, as his witnesses and guarantors in the {{Transl|ar|mubahala}} ritual,{{Sfn|McAuliffe|}}{{Sfn|Fedele|2018|p=56}} must have raised their religious rank within the community.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=16}}{{sfn|Lalani|2006|p=29}} If the word 'ourselves' in this verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=72}}{{Sfn|Bill|Williams|2002|p=29}}

The Quran also reserves for Muhammad's kin a fifth (Khums) of booty and a part of {{Transl|ar|fay}}. The latter comprises lands and properties conquered peacefully by Muslims.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=13}} This Quranic directive is seen as compensation for the exclusion of Muhammad and his family from alms (sadaqah, zakat). Indeed, almsgiving is considered an act of purification for ordinary Muslims and their donations should not reach Muhammad's kin as that would violate their state of purity in the Quran.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=14}}

{{Main article|Hadith of the thaqalayn}}

The hadith of the {{Transl|ar|thaqalayn}} ({{Lit|two treasures}}) is a widely-reported prophetic hadith that introduces the Quran and the progeny of Muhammad as the only two sources of divine guidance after his death.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=16}} This hadith is of particular significance in Twelver Shia, where the Twelve Imams, all descendants of Muhammad, are viewed as his spiritual and political successors.{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=156}} The version that appears in {{Transl|ar|Musnad Ahmad}}, a canonical Sunni hadith collection, reads,

{{Blockquote|text=I [Muhammad] left among you two treasures which, if you cling to them, you shall not be led into error after me. One of them is greater than the other: The book of God (Quran), which is a rope stretched from Heaven to Earth, and [the second one is] my progeny, my Ahl al-Bayt. These two shall not be parted until they return to the pool [of abundance in paradise, kawthar].{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=16}}}}

{{Main articles|Hadith of the ark}}

The hadith of the ark is attributed to Muhammad and likens his household to Noah's ark. Reported by both Shia and Sunni authorities, the version presented in {{transl|ar|al-Mustadrak}}, a Sunni collection of prophetic traditions, reads,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=325}} "Truly the people of my house (Ahl al-Bayt) in my community is like Noah's ark: Whoever takes refuge therein is saved and whoever opposes it is drowned."{{sfn|Sobhani|2001|p=112}}

The sanctity of a prophet's family was likely an accepted principle at the time of Muhammad.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=17}} Today, all Muslims venerate the household of Muhammad,{{sfn|Campo|2004}}{{sfn|Campo|2009}}{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=41}} and blessings on his family ({{Transl|ar|āl}}) are invoked in every prayer.{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|pp=16{{ndash}}17}} In many Muslim communities, high social status is granted to people claiming descent from Ali and Fatima. They are called sayyid or sharif.{{sfn|Glassé|2001}}{{sfn|Campo|2004}}{{sfn|Esposito|2003|p=9}} Several Muslim heads of state and politicians have also claimed blood descent from Muhammad, including the Alawid dynasty of Morocco, the Hashimite dynasty of Iraq and of Jordan, and the leader of the Iranian revolution, Khomeini.{{Sfn|Campo|2004}}

Sunnis too revere the Ahl al-Bayt,{{Sfn|Campo|2004}} perhaps more so before modern times.{{Sfn|Brunner|2014}} Most Sufi {{Transl|ar|tariq}}s (brotherhoods) also trace their spiritual chain to Muhammad through Ali and revere the Ahl al-Kisa as the Holy Five.{{Sfn|Campo|2004}} It is, however, the (Twelver and Isma'ili) Shias who hold the Ahl al-Bayt in the highest esteem, regarding them as the rightful leaders of the Muslim community after Muhammad. They also believe in the redemptive power of the pain and martyrdom endured by the Ahl al-Bayt (particularly by Husayn) for those who empathize with their divine cause and suffering.{{Sfn|Campo|2009}}{{Sfn|Campo|2004}} Twelver Shias await the messianic advent of Muhammad al-Mahdi, a descendant of Muhammad, who is expected to usher in an era of peace and justice by overcoming tyranny and oppression on earth.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=240}}{{Sfn|Campo|2004}} Some Shia sources also ascribe cosmological importance to the Ahl al-Bayt, where they are viewed as the reason for the creation.{{Sfn|Goldziher|Arendonk|Tritton|2012}}

{{Reflist|20em}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{cite book |title=The Prophet's Heir: The Life of Ali Ibn Abi Talib |author-first=H. |author-last=Abbas |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9780300252057 |author-link=Hassan Abbas (scholar)}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Algar |author-first=H. |year=2011 |title=Āl-e 'Abā |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=I/7 |page=742 |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-aba-the-family-of-the-cloak-i |author-link=Hamid Algar}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bill |first1=J. |last2=Williams |first2=J.A. |year=2002 |title=Roman Catholics and Shi'i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0807826898 |url=https://archive.org/details/romancatholicssh0000bill/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God |title=Ahl al-Bayt |author-first=R. |author-last=Brunner |year=2014 |pages=5–9 |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/page/4/mode/2up |publisher= |editor1-first=C. |editor1-last=Fitzpatrick |editor2-first=A.H. |editor2-last=Walker|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse/page/24/mode/2up |volume=1 |pages=25{{ndash}}26 |isbn=0028656040 |author-last=Campo |author-first=J.E. |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |editor-first=R.C. |editor-last=Martin |title=Ahl al-Bayt|url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |editor-first=J.E. |editor-last=Campo |year=2009 |isbn=9780816054541 |publisher=Facts On File |url=https://archive.org/details/islam-encyclopedia-of-islam-2009/page/22/mode/2up |title=ahl al-bayt |page=23 |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |editor-first=J.L. |editor-last=Esposito |isbn=0195125584 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada/page/8/mode/2up |page=9 |editor-link=John Esposito |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women in World Religions: Faith and Culture Across History |editor-first=S. |editor-last=de-Gaia |year=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781440848506 |title=Fatima (605/615{{ndash}}632 CE) |pages=56 |author-first=V. |author-last=Fedele |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jt91DwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA56}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Altamira |last=Glassé |first=C. |isbn=0759101892 |page=31 |title=Ahl al-Bayt |year=2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas/page/30/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Goldziher |author1-first=I. |author2-last=Arendonk |author2-first=C. van |author3-last=Tritton |author3-first=A.S. |title=Ahl Al-Bayt |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |year=2012 |url-access=subscription |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0378 |author1-link=Ignác Goldziher |isbn=9789004161214}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |title=Love and Affection |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00266 |editor-last=Pink |editor-first=J. |author-last=Gril |author-first=D. |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00266 |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Haider |author-first=N. |title=Shī'ī Islam: An Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=9781107031432}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ahl-e Bayt |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |author-first=I.K.A. |author-last=Howard |year=1984 |volume=I/6 |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ahl-e-bayt |page=365}}
• {{Cite book |last=Jafri |first=S.H.M |url=https://archive.org/details/OriginsAndEarlyDevelopmentOfShiaIslamBySyedHusainMohammadJafri/mode/2up |title=Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam |publisher=Longman |year=1979 |location=London |author-link=Husain Mohammad Jafri |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last1=Lalani |first1=A.R. |title=Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir |date=2000 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=1850435928}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/28/mode/2up |last=Lalani |first=A.R. |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=O. |pages=28{{ndash}}32 |isbn=9780415326391 |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |editor-first=O. |editor-last=Leaman |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=9780415326391 |url=https://archive.org/details/thequrananencyclopediaed.byoliverleaman_201909/page/n709/mode/2up |author-first=O. |author-last=Leaman |title=Ahl al-Bayt |pages=16–17 |url-access=registration |author-link=Oliver Leaman}}
• {{cite book |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |author-first=W. |author-last=Madelung |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521646963 |url=https://archive.org/details/successiontomuam0000made/mode/2up |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |url-access=registration}}
• {{citation |last=Mavani |first=H. |title=Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini |series=Routledge Studies in Political Islam |isbn=9780415624404 |url=https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/2up |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=McAuliffe |author-first=J.D. |title=Fāṭima |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153 |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Pink |url-access=subscription |author-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153 |access-date=12 June 2023}}
• {{cite book |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam |author-first=M. |author-last=Momen |year=1985 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300035315 |author-link=Moojan Momen}}
• {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/thestudyquran_201909/mode/2up |title=The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary |publisher=Harper Collins |year=2015 |isbn=9780061125867 |editor1-last=Nasr |editor1-first=S.H. |editor1-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |ref={{harvid|Nasr et al.|2015}} |editor2-last=Dagli |editor2-first=C.K. |editor3-last=Dakake |editor3-first=M.M. |editor3-link=Maria Massi Dakake |editor4-last=Lumbard |editor4-first=J.E.B. |editor5-last=Rustom |editor5-first=M. |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |title=Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam |author-first=R. |author-last=Osman |year=2015 |isbn=9781315770147 |publisher=Routledge}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Schmucker |author-first=W. |title=Mubāhala |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |year=2012 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289 |isbn=9789004161214 |url-access=subscription |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289}}
• {{cite book |title=Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam 'Ali |author-first=R. |author-last=Shah-Kazemi |author-link=Reza Shah-Kazemi |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=9781845115265}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-first=R. |author-last=Shah-Kazemi |translator-first=M. |translator-last=Melvin-Koushki |title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 2. Biography |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor-first=F. |editor-link=Farhad Daftary |author-link=Reza Shah-Kazemi |editor-last=Daftary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252 |year=2015 |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252 |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Sharon |author-first=M. |title=People of the House |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Pink |access-date=16 July 2023 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00323 |url-access=subscription|author-link=Moshe Sharon}}
• {{cite book |title=Shi'i Islam: Origins, Faith, and Practices |author-first=M.A. |author-last=Shomali |isbn=190406311X |year=2003 |publisher=Islammic College for Advanced Studies Press |author-link=Mohammad Ali Shomali}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Sobhani |author-first=J. |title=Doctrines of Shi'i Islam: A Compendium of Imami Beliefs and Practices |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2001 |isbn=1860647804 |lccn=2004433965 |ol=17038817M |oclc=48944249 |translator-last=Shah-Kazemi |translator-first=R. |author-link=Ja'far Sobhani}}
• {{cite thesis |author-last= |author-first= |title=The Image of Fāṭima in Classical Muslim Thought |publisher=Princeton University |last=Soufi |first=D.L. |date=1997 |degree=PhD |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304390529 |id={{ProQuest|304390529}}}}
• {{cite book |last=Tabatabai |first=S.M.H. |url=https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up |title=Shi'ite Islam |publisher=State University of New York Press |translator-first=S.H. |translator-last=Nasr |translator-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |year=1975 |isbn=0873953908 |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Veccia Vaglieri |author1-first=L. |title=Fāṭima |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |year=2012 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0217 |isbn=9789004161214 |url-access=subscription |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Öz |first1=M. |title=Ehl-i Beyt |encyclopedia=Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam |date=1994 |publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |isbn=9789753894371 |pages=498–501 |volume=10 |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-beyt |lang=tr}}

{{refend}}

{{Islam topics |collapsed}}

{{Characters and names in the Quran}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Arabic words and phrases

*

Category:Quranic words and phrases

Middle Eastern royal families

Category:Banu Hashim