Aircraft#Size

{{More citations needed section|date=April 2025}}

{{Main|History of aviation}}

{{See also|Timeline of aviation}}

File:Aviation (Nouveaau Larousse,c. 1900) DSCN2832.jpg

The history of aviation spans over two millennia, from the earliest innovations like kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight in powered, heavier-than-air jet aircraft. Kite flying in China, dating back several hundred years BC, is considered the earliest example of man-made flight.{{Cite web |title=Kite {{!}} Aeronautics, History & Benefits |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/kite-aeronautics |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} In the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci created flying machine designs incorporating aeronautical concepts, but they were unworkable due to the limitations of contemporary knowledge.{{Cite journal |last=Botelho Parra |first=Rogerio |date=14 September 2018 |title=Leonardo da Vinci Interdisciplinarity |url=https://www.icas.org/icas_archive/ICAS2018/data/papers/ICAS2018_0301_paper.pdf |journal=31st Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=10 |via=ICAS}}

In the late 18th century, the Montgolfier brothers invented the hot-air balloon which soon led to manned flights. At almost the same time, the discovery of hydrogen gas led to the invention of the hydrogen balloon.{{cite book |last1=Crouch |first1=Tom |title=Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |year=2004 |location=New York, New York |isbn=0-393-32620-9}} Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period, such as fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the development of modern aerodynamics; most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with France establishing balloon companies during the French Revolution.Hallion (2003)

In the 19th century, especially the second half, experiments with gliders provided the basis for learning the dynamics of winged aircraft; most notably by Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, and Octave Chanute. By the early 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered, manned heavier-than-air flight possible for the first time. In 1903, following their pioneering research and experiments with wing design and aircraft control, the Wright brothers successfully incorporated all of the required elements to create and fly the first airplane.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_balloon_challenge/299568.stm "Flying through the ages"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021044458/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_balloon_challenge/299568.stm |date=21 October 2014 }} BBC News. Retrieved 2024-10-18. In 1906 Charles Frederick Page was granted the first U.S. patent for an aircraft.{{cite news |title=Louisiana figures fly out of aviation history |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-louisiana-figures-fly-out-of-a/154560643/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |work=The Times |date=1 August 2020 |pages=A1}} The basic configuration with its characteristic cruciform tail was established by 1909, followed by rapid design and performance improvements aided by the development of more powerful engines.

The first vessels of the air were the rigid steerable balloons pioneered by Ferdinand von Zeppelin that became synonymous with airships and dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s, when large flying boats became popular for trans-oceanic routes. After World War II, the flying boats were in turn replaced by airplanes operating from land, made far more capable first by improved propeller engines, then by jet engines, which revolutionized both civilian air travel and military aviation.

In the latter half of the 20th century, the development of digital electronics led to major advances in flight instrumentation and "fly-by-wire" systems. The 21st century has seen the widespread use of pilotless drones for military, commercial, and recreational purposes. With computerized controls, inherently unstable aircraft designs, such as flying wings, have also become practical.

{{Main|Aerostat}}Lighter-than-air aircraft or aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a lifting gas such as helium, hydrogen or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. Other gases lighter than air also theoretically work, however, such gases also needs to be same for human use (non-flammable, non-toxic).{{Cite web |date=2022-01-12 |title=What Is a Lifting Gas? - National Aviation Academy |url=https://www.naa.edu/lifting-gas/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |language=en-US}}

Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, although they also had military purposes.{{Cite web |date=26 May 2024 |title=The Fascinating History of Hot Air Balloons: From Ancient Sky Lanterns to Modern Marvels |work=History Tools |url=https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-fascinating-history-of-hot-air-balloons-from-ancient-sky-lanterns-to-modern-marvels |access-date=26 April 2025}} They, along with kites, were two forms of unmanned aircraft that originated from China.{{Cite web |last=MAK |date=2025-01-22 |title=The Origin of Kites in Ancient China - CS Kites |url=https://cskites.com/blog/the-origin-of-kites-in-ancient-china/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |language=en-US}} Kites were also used in the military, but unlike sky lanterns, their flight is caused by the differences of air pressure beneath and above the kite.{{Cite web |last=Ashish |date=2016-08-02 |title=Why Is It Difficult To Fly Kites On Non-Windy Days? |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/physics-kite-flying-how-to-make-aerodynamic-structure.html#:~:text=Kites%20fly%20because%20of%20the%20aerodynamic%20forces%20of,of%20the%20kite%20is%20balanced%20by%20the%20lift. |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=ScienceABC |language=en-US}}File:Colorado Springs Hot Air Balloon Competition.jpg]]

File:USS Akron (ZRS-4) in flight over Manhattan, circa 1931-1933.jpg over Manhattan in the 1930s]]A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing.[http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth172915/ US patent 467069] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223070653/http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark%3A/67531/metapth172915/ |date=23 February 2014}} "Air-ship" referring to a compound aerostat/rotorcraft.Ezekiel Airship (1902) [http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/History_of_the_Airplane/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro.htm wright-brothers.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203131729/http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/History_of_the_Airplane/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro.htm |date=3 December 2013}}[http://altereddimensions.net/2012/burrell-cannon-flies-first-airplane altereddimensions.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222065900/http://altereddimensions.net/2012/burrell-cannon-flies-first-airplane |date=22 February 2014}} "airship," – referring to an HTA aeroplane.[http://gustavewhitehead.org/news_journalism/1901_-_flying.html The Bridgeport Herald, August 18, 1901] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803021718/http://gustavewhitehead.org/news_journalism/1901_-_flying.html |date=3 August 2013}} – "air ship" referring to Whitehead's aeroplane.Cooley Airship of 1910, also called the Cooley monoplane.{{Cite web|url=http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Aviations_Attic/UFOs/UFOs.htm|title=Unbelievable Flying Objects|access-date=10 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031147/http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Aviations_Attic/UFOs/UFOs.htm|archive-date=2 November 2013}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.xpolet.eu.org|title=Round Aircraft Designs|access-date=7 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402075442/http://celticowboy.com/Round%20Aircraft%20Designs.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012}} – a heavier-than-air monoplane.Frater, A.; The Balloon Factory, Picador (2009), p. 163. Wright brothers' "airship."[http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=879 George Griffith, The angel of the Revolution, 1893] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222154830/http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=879 |date=22 February 2014}} — "air-ship," "vessel" referring to a VTOL compound rotorcraft (not clear from the reference if it might be an aerostat hybrid.) In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts."[http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=AS19190224.2.104 Auckland Star, 24 February 1919] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324163806/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=AS19190224.2.104 |date=24 March 2014}} "Ships of the air," "Air yachts" – passenger landplanes large and small In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships".[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17455790 The Sydney Morning Herald, Monday 11 April 1938] – "ship of the airs," "flying-ship," referring to a large flying-boat.[http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/america-by-air/online/innovation/innovation16.cfm Smithsonian, America by air] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118135217/http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/america-by-air/online/innovation/innovation16.cfm |date=18 January 2014}} "Ships of the Air" referring to Pan Am's Boeing Clipper flying-boat fleet.

Heavier-than-air aircraft or aerodynes are denser than air and thus must find some way to obtain enough lift that can overcome the aircraft's weight. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift by having air flowing past an aerofoil (such dynamic interaction of aerofoils with air is the origin of the term "aerodyne"), or powered lift in the form of reactional lift from downward engine thrust.{{Cite web |last=Laurent |date=2023-11-15 |title=Understanding the Aerodynamic Forces in Flight |url=https://www.studyflight.com/understanding-the-aerodynamic-forces-in-flight/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=Study flight |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite web |date=13 May 2021 |title=Rocket Principles |url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/rocket/TRCRocket/rocket_principles.html |access-date=26 April 2025 |website=NASA}}

Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, and can be achieved via two methods. Fixed-wing aircraft (airplanes and gliders) achieve airflow past the wings by having the entire aircraft moving forward through the air, while rotorcraft (helicopters and autogyros) do so by having mobile, elongated wings spinning rapidly around a mast in an assembly known as the rotor.{{Cite web |date=2021-12-20 |title=2.1.2: Rotorcraft |url=https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Aerospace_Engineering/Fundamentals_of_Aerospace_Engineering_(Arnedo)/02:_Generalities/2.01:_Classification_of_aerospace_vehicles/2.1.02:_Rotorcraft |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=Engineering LibreTexts |language=en}}

{{Main|Fixed-wing aircraft}}

Gliders were one of the first forms of a fixed wing aircraft. They are a special type of aircraft that doesn't require an engine.{{Cite news |title=Gliders {{!}} Glenn Research Center {{!}} NASA |url=https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/gliders/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250308232351/https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/gliders/ |archive-date=2025-03-08 |access-date=2025-04-26 |work=Glenn Research Center {{!}} NASA |language=en-US}} The first person to successfully build a human-carrying glider was George Cayley, who also was the first to discover the four major aerodynamic forces.{{Cite web |title=The Pioneers : An Anthology : Sir George Cayley Bt. (1773 - 1857) |url=https://ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/cayley.html |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=ctie.monash.edu.au}} The first powered aircraft (Airplane) was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright.{{Cite web |date=2003-12-01 |title=Who Invented the Airplane? (Grades K-4) - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/who-invented-the-airplane-grades-k-4/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |language=en-US}}

{{Main|Rotorcraft}}{{More citations needed section|date=April 2025}}

A rotary-wing aircraft, rotorwing aircraft or rotorcraft is a heavier-than-air aircraft with rotary wings that spin around a vertical mast to generate lift. The assembly of several rotor blades mounted on a single mast is referred to as a rotor. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines a rotorcraft as "supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or more rotors"."ICAO Annex 7." Retrieved on 30 September 2009.

Rotorcraft generally include aircraft where one or more rotors provide lift throughout the entire flight, such as helicopters, gyroplanes, autogyros, and gyrodynes Compound rotorcraft augment the rotor with additional thrust engines, propellers, or static lifting surfaces. Some types, such as helicopters, are capable of vertical takeoff and landing. An aircraft which uses rotor lift for vertical flight but changes to solely fixed-wing lift in horizontal flight is not a rotorcraft but a convertiplane.File:Mil Mi-8P, Baltic Airlines (cropped).jpg is the most produced rotorcraft.]]

{{Further|Lifting body}}

• A lifting body is an aircraft which produces lift through the shape of its body, rather than its wings or rotors, like conventional aircraft. Lifting bodies were first experimented by NASA in the 1960s-70s, but the idea was already conceived in the 1950s.{{Cite web |date=2014-02-28 |title=Lifting Bodies - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/aeronautics/aircraft/lifting-bodies/ |access-date=2025-04-27 |language=en-US}}
• A powered lift aircraft is one which has the capability of vertical takeoff and landing. These aircraft must transition from vertical to lateral movement, which is considered the most dangerous phases of a flight.{{Cite web |title=Powered-Lift Aircraft {{!}} SKYbrary Aviation Safety |url=https://skybrary.aero/articles/powered-lift-aircraft |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=skybrary.aero}} Classes of powered lift types include VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump jet) and tiltrotors, such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, among others.{{Cite web |last=Siminski |first=Jacek |date=2013-04-11 |title=Harrier: The Story Of The "Jump Jet" That Helped Margaret Thatcher Win The Falklands War |url=https://theaviationist.com/2013/04/11/harrier-story/ |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=The Aviationist |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=V-22 Osprey |url=https://www.aviation.marines.mil/About/Aircraft/Tilt-Rotor/pubDate/20250423/ |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=Marines}}
• An ornithopter is an aircraft that produces lift through the movement of its wings, akin to how a bird flies.{{Cite news |date=2010-09-24 |title='World's first' ornithopter takes flight |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-11410410 |access-date=2025-04-27 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}

{{Main|List of large aircraft}}The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the {{cvt|302|ft|m}} long British Airlander 10, a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to {{cvt|90|mph|km/h kn}}, and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to {{cvt|22050|lbs|kg}}.[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/08/17/worlds-largest-aircraft-the-airlander-takes-first-flight/ "World's largest aircraft the Airlander makes maiden flight in UK,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224818/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/08/17/worlds-largest-aircraft-the-airlander-takes-first-flight/ |date=22 November 2016}} 16 August 2016, London 'Daily Telegraph' via Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 22 November 2016."Airlander 10, the world's largest aircraft, takes off for the first time," 19 August 2016, CBS News (TV) retrieved 22 November 2016.Kottasova, Ivana [https://money.cnn.com/2016/08/24/technology/worlds-largest-aircraft-crash-airlander-10/ "The world's largest aircraft crashes after 2nd test flight"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224325/https://money.cnn.com/2016/08/24/technology/worlds-largest-aircraft-crash-airlander-10/ |date=22 November 2016}}, 24 August 2016, CNN Tech on CNN, the Cable News Network. Retrieved 22 November 2016.

The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, was the Antonov An-225 Mriya. That Soviet-built (Ukrainian SSR) six-engine transport of the 1980s was {{cvt|84|m|ft}} long, with an {{cvt|88|m|ft}} wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting {{cvt|428834|lbs|kg}} of goods, and has flown {{cvt|100|t|lbs}} loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of {{cvt|550-700|t|lbs}}, it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at {{cvt|500|mph|km/h kn}}.{{Cite web|last1=July|first1=Dyre|title=Fly Drive Aanbiedingen|url=https://www.flydrivereizen.nl/aanbiedingen/|website=flydrivereizen.nl|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104014121/https://www.flydrivereizen.nl/aanbiedingen/|archive-date=4 November 2016}}[https://www.foxnews.com/tech/watch-the-worlds-biggest-plane-land-in-australia/ "Watch the world's biggest plane land in Australia,"] 16 May 2016, Fox News. Retrieved 22 November 2016.{{cite news|last=Rumbaugh|first=Andrea|url=http://www.chron.com/business/article/World-s-largest-airplane-lands-at-Bush-airport-10622046.php#item-38488|title=World's biggest airplane lands at Bush airport|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052928/http://www.chron.com/business/article/World-s-largest-airplane-lands-at-Bush-airport-10622046.php|archive-date=23 November 2016|date=18 November 2016|work=Houston Chronicle}}Lewis, Danny, [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/worlds-largest-aircraft-might-lose-its-title-blimp-180956677/ "The World's Largest Aircraft Might Lose its Title to a Blimp,"], 18 September 2015, Smart News, Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.. Retrieved 22 November 2016.[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/design/q0188.shtml "Ask Us – Largest Plane in the World,"] Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved 22 November 2016. The aircraft was destroyed during the Russo-Ukrainian War.{{Cite web|last=Shead|first=Sam|title=Photos show world's largest cargo plane destroyed in Ukraine|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/04/antonov-an-225-wreckage-worlds-largest-plane-destroyed-in-ukraine.html|access-date=25 January 2023|website=CNBC|date=4 April 2022}}

The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport),[https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_028_Antonov.html "World's Second Largest Aircraft,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122222701/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_028_Antonov.html |date=22 November 2016}} 28 July 2013, NASA. Retrieved 22 November 2016. and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport, weighing, loaded, over {{cvt|380|t|lbs}}.Loftin, Laurence K., Jr., [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch13-5.htm "Wide-Body Transports"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607034616/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch13-5.htm |date=7 June 2013}}, in Chapter 13, "Jet Transports," in Part II, "The Jet Age," in Quest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft, NASA SP-468, 1985, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA, Washington, D.C., Updated: 6 August 2004. Retrieved 22 November 2016. The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-4 Hercules "Spruce Goose" — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260 ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78 ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect.

The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the Airbus Beluga cargo transport derivative of the Airbus A300 jet airliner, the Boeing Dreamlifter cargo transport derivative of the Boeing 747 jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over {{cvt|400|t|lbs}}), and the double-decker Airbus A380 "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger airliner).[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/business/worldbusiness/29iht-airbus.4.12438349.html "Airbus reviews A380 schedule,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002211/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/business/worldbusiness/29iht-airbus.4.12438349.html |date=2 February 2017}} 29 April 2008, The New York Times. Retrieved 22 November 2016.

{{Main|Flight airspeed record}}

The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or {{cvt|17,500|mph|km/h}}{{cite web|editor=Benson, Tom|url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/hihyper.html|title=Speed Regimes: Hypersonic Re-Entry|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052843/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/hihyper.html|archive-date=23 November 2016|url-status=live|publisher=Glenn Research Center, NASA}}

The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of the NASA X-43A Pegasus, a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.68 or {{cvt|6,755|mph|sigfig=4}} on 16 November 2004.{{cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-aircraft-air-breathing-engine|title=Fastest aircraft, air-breathing engine: X-43|date=16 November 2004|work=Guinness World Records}}

Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was the North American X-15, rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967.{{cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/78491-fastest-aircraft-rocket-powered|title=Fastest speed in a non-spacecraft aircraft|work=Guinness World Records|date=3 October 1967}}

The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached {{cvt|3529.56|km/h|adj=ri0|sigfig=4}} on 28 July 1976.{{cite web|url=https://www.fai.org/record/8879|date=28 July 1976|title=current record, Powered Aeroplanes, Absolute, Speed|publisher=FAI}}

{{Main|Unpowered aircraft}}The main feature of unpowered aircraft is the inability to directly provide thrust through its engines. This means that all unpowered aircraft rely on the environment for sustained flight. Gliders, for example, take advantage of their aerodynamic properties to enable them to travel long distances. Techniques such as thermal circling, where gliders fly into warm air which allows them to rise, prolongs flight time.{{Cite web |title=Understanding the Principles of Glider Flight |url=https://physicscore.com/articles/principles-of-glider-flight/ |access-date=27 April 2025}}

Due to the lack of an engine, initial propulsion assistance is usually necessary to ensure flight. A common glider launching method is aerotowing, where another aircraft tows the glider to an altitude from which sustained flight is possible.{{Cite web |last=cwarrior |title=How Gliders Fly - Beverley Soaring Society - West Australia Gliding Club |url=https://www.beverley-soaring.org.au/about-gliding/how-gliders-fly/#:~:text=Unlike%20pelicans,%20glider%20wings%20don%E2%80%99t%20flap,%20so%20they,a%20ground-based%20winch%20and%20a%20very%20long%20cable. |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=Beverley Soaring Society |language=en-US}} Steering for a glider is also rudimentary, while more complex gliders like sailplanes usually have joysticks for steering, more basic aircraft like hang gliders rely on the pilot's physical coordination to change the centre of gravity.{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Enviroliteracy |date=2025-04-21 |title=Can you steer a glider? |url=https://enviroliteracy.org/can-you-steer-a-glider/ |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=The Environmental Literacy Council |language=en-US}}File:PH-1274 Rolladen-Schneider LS-4b.JPG)]]

{{Main|Aircraft engine}}

A powered aircraft is an aircraft with a source of mechanical power, used to produce thrust. Such sources are generally engines, as is the case with airplanes, but can be human-powered in more extreme cases.{{Cite web |date=13 May 2021 |title=How does a jet engine work? |url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/engines.html |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=NASA}}{{Cite web |last=Paleja |first=Ameya |title=Human-powered aircraft: A plane with 'impossible engineering' and no engine |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/lazarus-human-powered-aircraft?group=test_b |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=Interesting Engineering |language=en}}

Propeller aircraft, as their name suggests, rely on propellers to produce thrust for the airplane.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}File:WestCoastAirFloatplane.jpg-engined DeHavilland Twin Otter adapted as a floatplane]]

{{Main|Jet aircraft}}

File:Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor JSOH.jpg]]

Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about {{Convert|40000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, greater efficiency.{{Cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm|title=ch10-3|publisher=Hq.nasa.gov|access-date=26 March 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914184628/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm|archive-date=14 September 2010}}

{{Main|Rotorcraft}}{{Empty section|date=April 2025}}

The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:

• The structure ("airframe"Gove, P.B., editor: Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged, 1993, Merriam-Webster, Springfield, Mass., USACrane, D., editor: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, Third Edition, ASA (Aviation Supplies & Academics), Newcastle, Washington, USA2012 Federal Aviation Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians, 2012, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of TransportationGunston, Bill, editor: Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1980, Jane's, London / New York / Sydney) comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment, as well as flight controls.
• The propulsion system ("powerplant"[https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/21_phak_glossary.pdf "Glossary"] in Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK), Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., retrieved 12 September 2022) (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above.
• The avionics comprise the electrical and electronic control, navigation and communication systems.Wragg, David W. editor: A Dictionary of Aviation, 1974, Frederick Fell, New York

{{Main|Aerostat}}

File:OAM_Aerostat_TARS_Deming_New_Mexico_(16715553462).jpg, the Tethered Aerostat Radar System (TARS)]]

An aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft relies on buoyancy to maintain flight. Aerostats include unpowered balloons (free-flying or tethered) and powered airships. The relative density of an aerostat as a whole is lower than that of the surrounding atmospheric air (hence the name "lighter-than-air"). Its main component is one or more gas capsules made of lightweight skins, containing a lifting gas (hot air, or any gas with lower density than air, typically hydrogen or helium) that displaces a large volume of air to generate enough buoyancy to overcome its own weight. Payload (passengers and cargo) can then be carried on attached components such as a basket, a gondola, a cabin or various hardpoints.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pz2ORay2HWoC|title=The Chambers Dictionary|last=Chambers|first=Allied|date=1998|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788186062258|page=541|language=en|quote=the gas-bag of a balloon or airship}}{{cite book |title=The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary |page=281 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |orig-year=1975 |location=Great Britain |quote=fabric enclosing gas-bags of airship}} With airships, which need to be able to fly against wind, the lifting gas capsules are often protected by a more rigid outer envelope or an airframe, with other gasbags such as ballonets to help modulate buoyancy.

Aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic buoyant force that does not require any forward movement through the surrounding air mass, resulting in the inherent ability to levitate and perform vertical takeoff and landing. This contrasts with the heavier-than-air aerodynes that primarily use aerodynamic lift, which must have consistent airflow over an aerofoil (wing) surface to stay airborne. The term has also been used in a narrower sense, to refer to the statically tethered balloon in contrast to the free-flying airship.{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=8}} This article uses the term in its broader sense.

File:Merlin Airframe Material.jpg helicopter]]{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

{{Main|Propulsion}}

The source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called the powerplant, and includes engine or motor, propeller or rotor, (if any), jet nozzles and thrust reversers (if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.: starter, ignition system, intake system, exhaust system, fuel system, lubrication system, engine cooling system, and engine controls).

Powered aircraft are typically powered by internal combustion engines (piston[https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/icengine.html "Internal Combustion Engine,"] Glenn Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), retrieved 12 September 2022 or turbine[https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/icengine.html "Engines,"] Glenn Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), retrieved 12 September 2022) burning fossil fuels—typically gasoline (avgas) or jet fuel. A very few are powered by rocket power, ramjet propulsion, or by electric motors, or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, by human muscle energy (e.g.: Gossamer Condor).Bryan, C.D.B.: The National Air and Space Museum, 1979 / 1984, Abrams, New YorkTaylor, Michael J.H., editor: Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation, 1989 ed., Portland House / Random House, New York[https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/aeronautics/eap/ "Electrified Aircraft Propulsion" (EAP)], Glenn Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), retrieved 12 September 2022

{{Main|Avionics}}

The avionics comprise any electronic aircraft flight control systems and related equipment, including electronic cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communications systems.

{{Main|Flight envelope}}

The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of airspeed, load factor and altitude.{{Cite web|url=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple;c=ecfr;cc=ecfr;sid=a8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641;region=DIV1;q1=23.335;rgn=div8;view=text;idno=14;node=14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8|title=eCFR — Code of Federal Regulations|work=gpoaccess.gov|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402202400/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple%3Bc%3Decfr%3Bcc%3Decfr%3Bsid%3Da8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641%3Bregion%3DDIV1%3Bq1%3D23.335%3Brgn%3Ddiv8%3Bview%3Dtext%3Bidno%3D14%3Bnode%3D14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8|archive-date=2 April 2012}}{{Cite news |title=LOAD FACTOR |url=http://www.access.gpo.gov/ecfr/graphics/pdfs/ec28se91.001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601204507/http://www.access.gpo.gov/ecfr/graphics/pdfs/ec28se91.001.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-01}}

{{Main|Range (aeronautics)}}

File:Boeing 777-200LR banking over mountain.jpg is one of the longest-range airliners, capable of flights of more than halfway around the world.]]

The maximal total range is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing. Powered aircraft range is limited by the aviation fuel energy storage capacity (chemical or electrical) considering both weight and volume limits.{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |date=1973 |page=221 }} Unpowered aircraft range depends on factors such as cross-country speed and environmental conditions. The range can be seen as the cross-country ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air. The fuel time limit for powered aircraft is fixed by the available fuel (considering reserve fuel requirements) and rate of consumption. The Airbus A350-900ULR is among the longest range airliners.{{cite web |url=https://www.airbus.com/sites/g/files/jlcbta136/files/2024-04/Airbus-A350-Family-Facts-and-Figures%20April-2024.pdf#page=3 |title=Airbus-A350-Family-Facts-and-Figures April-2024.pdf |year=2024 |website=airbus.com |publisher=Airbus |access-date=18 June 2024 |quote="… Operational flexibility: … The A350-900 Ultra Long Range (ULR) is the latest variant of the A350 Family. Capable of flying 9,700 nautical miles (18,000 kilometres) non-stop, the A350-900ULR offers the longest range of any commercial airliner in service today. …"}}

Some aircraft can gain energy while airborne through the environment (e.g. collecting solar energy or through rising air currents from mechanical or thermal lifting) or from in-flight refueling. These aircraft could theoretically have an infinite range.

Ferry range means the maximum range that an aircraft engaged in ferry flying can achieve. This usually means maximum fuel load, optionally with extra fuel tanks and minimum equipment. It refers to the transport of aircraft without any passengers or cargo. Combat radius is a related measure based on the maximum distance a warplane can travel from its base of operations, accomplish some objective, and return to its original airfield with minimal reserves.

{{Main|Aircraft flight dynamics}}

File:Flight dynamics with text.png

Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three dimensions about the vehicle's center of gravity (cg), known as pitch, roll and yaw. These are collectively known as aircraft attitude, often principally relative to the atmospheric frame in normal flight, but also relative to terrain during takeoff or landing, or when operating at low elevation. The concept of attitude is not specific to fixed-wing aircraft, but also extends to rotary aircraft such as helicopters, and dirigibles, where the flight dynamics involved in establishing and controlling attitude are entirely different.

Control systems adjust the orientation of a vehicle about its cg. A control system includes control surfaces which, when deflected, generate a moment (or couple from ailerons) about the cg which rotates the aircraft in pitch, roll, and yaw. For example, a pitching moment comes from a force applied at a distance forward or aft of the cg, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down.

A fixed-wing aircraft increases or decreases the lift generated by the wings when it pitches nose up or down by increasing or decreasing the angle of attack (AOA). The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed-wing aircraft, which usually "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. An aircraft is streamlined from nose to tail to reduce drag making it advantageous to keep the sideslip angle near zero, though an aircraft may be deliberately "sideslipped" to increase drag and descent rate during landing, to keep aircraft heading same as runway heading during cross-wind landings and during flight with asymmetric power.{{Cite book |last=Defense Technical Information Center |url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA124610 |title=DTIC ADA124610: Fixed Wing Stability and Control Theory and Flight Test Techniques. Revision |date=1981-11-01 |language=english |pages=V-5}}

File:Aircraft tail.JPG of a Boeing 747-200]]A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers,Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, p. 194. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. {{ISBN|1-56027-287-2}}Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, From the Ground Up, p. 10 (27th revised edition) {{ISBN|0-9690054-9-0}} which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow.{{Cite web|url=http://www.airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx|title=Airline Handbook Chapter 5: How Aircraft Fly|work=Airline Handbook|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620150339/http://airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx|archive-date=20 June 2010|publisher=Air Transport Association}} These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw.

{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

{{Main|Environmental impact of aviation}}

Aircraft engines produce gases, noise, and particulates from fossil fuel combustion, raising environmental concerns over their global effects and on local air quality.{{cite web | url=https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx | title=Aircraft Engine Emissions | publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization | access-date=23 October 2020 | archive-date=27 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727040541/https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx | url-status=live}}

Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}), the best understood greenhouse gas, and, with less scientific understanding, nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates. Their radiative forcing is estimated at 1.4 that of {{CO2}} alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud with a very low level of scientific understanding.

In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of {{CO2}} emissions.{{cite web | url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_CO2-commercl-aviation-2018_20190918.pdf | title=CO₂ emissions from commercial aviation, 2018 | author=Brandon Graver | author2=Kevin Zhang | author3=Dan Rutherford | date=September 2019 | publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation | access-date=10 January 2020 | archive-date=20 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120065456/https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_CO2-commercl-aviation-2018_20190918.pdf | url-status=live}} Jet airliners have become more fuel efficient and {{CO2}} emissions per revenue ton-kilometer (RTK) in 2018 were 47% of those in 1990. In 2018, {{CO2}} emissions averaged 88 grams of {{CO2}} per revenue passenger per km. While the aviation industry is more fuel efficient, overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.{{Cite web | url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en | title=Reducing emissions from aviation | website=Climate Action | date=23 November 2016 | publisher=European Commission | access-date=1 June 2019 | archive-date=22 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622053225/https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en | url-status=live}}

Aircraft noise pollution disrupts sleep, children's education and could increase cardiovascular risk. Airports can generate water pollution due to their extensive handling of jet fuel and deicing chemicals if not contained, contaminating nearby water bodies. Aviation activities emit ozone and ultrafine particles, both of which are health hazards. Piston engines used in general aviation burn Avgas, releasing toxic lead.

Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better fuel economy in aircraft, or air traffic control and flight routes can be optimized to lower non-{{CO2}} effects on climate from {{chem2|NOx}}, particulates or contrails.

Aviation biofuel, emissions trading and carbon offsetting, part of the ICAO's CORSIA, can lower {{CO2}} emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by short-haul flight bans, train connections, personal choices and aviation taxation and subsidies. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by hybrid electric aircraft and electric aircraft or by hydrogen-powered aircraft.

Since 2021, the IATA members plan net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, followed by the ICAO in 2022.

File:Color Photographed B-17E in Flight.jpg in flight]]

{{Main|Military aircraft}}

A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:

• Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. Combat aircraft are typically developed and procured only by military forces.
• Non-combat aircraft, such as transports and tankers, are not designed for combat as their primary function but may carry weapons for self-defense. These mainly operate in support roles, and may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations.

File:Pilatus Agusta A109 Flug.jpg helicopter of the Swiss air rescue service]]

{{Main|Civil aviation}}

Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military and non-state aviation, which can be both private and commercial. Most countries in the world are members of the International Civil Aviation Organization and work together to establish common Standards and Recommended Practices for civil aviation through that agency.

Civil aviation includes three major categories:

• Commercial air transport, including scheduled and non-scheduled passenger and cargo flights
• Aerial work, in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, photography, surveying, search and rescue, etc.
• General aviation (GA), including all other civil flights, private or commercial{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.verifavia.com/bases/ressource_pdf/299/icao-annex-6-part-i.pdf|title=Annex 6, Operation of Aircraft Part I, International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes|edition=9|date=July 2010|publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)|chapter=1. Definitions|pages=1, 3 and 5|isbn=9789292315368|access-date=17 March 2019}}

Although scheduled air transport is the larger operation in terms of passenger numbers, GA is larger in the number of flights (and flight hours, in the U.S.{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table1.htm |title=NTSB - Aviation Accident Statistics |access-date=2009-08-16 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901224856/https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table1.htm |archive-date=2009-09-01 }}) In the U.S., GA carries 166 million passengers each year,{{cite web |url=http://www.gaservingamerica.com/Advantages_of_GA.htm |title=Advantages of General Aviation vs. Airline, Faster, Better, Cheaper, More Secure |access-date=2008-09-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913211501/http://www.gaservingamerica.com/Advantages_of_GA.htm |archive-date=2008-09-13 }} more than any individual airline, though less than all the airlines combined. Since 2004, the U.S. airlines combined have carried over 600 million passengers each year, and in 2014, they carried a combined 662,819,232 passengers.United States Department of Transportation. "[http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/data_and_statistics/by_mode/airline_and_airports/airline_passengers.html Bureau of Transportation Statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725013700/http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/data_and_statistics/by_mode/airline_and_airports/airline_passengers.html |date=2015-07-25 }}". Retrieved 24 July 2015

Some countries also make a regulatory distinction based on whether aircraft are flown for hire, like:

• Commercial aviation includes most or all flying done for hire, particularly scheduled service on airlines; and
• Private aviation includes pilots flying for their own purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.) without receiving any kind of remuneration.

File:British Airways Boeing 747-400 (G-CIVH) departs London Heathrow 11Apr2015 arp.jpg Boeing 747-400 departs London Heathrow International Airport. This is an example of a commercial aviation service.]]

All scheduled air transport is commercial, but general aviation can be either commercial or private. Normally, the pilot, aircraft, and operator must all be authorized to perform commercial operations through separate commercial licensing, registration, and operation certificates.

{{Main|Experimental aircraft}}

File:MiniCeline ultralight aircraft.jpeg

An experimental aircraft is an aircraft intended for testing new aerospace technologies and design concepts.

The term research aircraft or testbed aircraft, by contrast, generally denotes aircraft modified to perform scientific studies, such as weather research or geophysical surveying, similar to a research vessel.{{Cite web |title=NOAA research aircraft |url=https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/about_hrd/aircraft.html |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=US NOAA}}

The term "experimental aircraft" also has specific legal meaning in Australia, the United States and some other countries; usually used to refer to aircraft flown with an experimental certificate.[http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/71F1608EE6AAF580862576E4005B24C6?OpenDocument 14CFR 21.175] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912092021/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/71F1608EE6AAF580862576E4005B24C6?OpenDocument |date=2018-09-12 }}, US Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 2018-01-12 In the United States, this also includes most homebuilt aircraft, many of which are based on conventional designs and hence are experimental only in name because of certain restrictions in operation.[http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/A9986A485C9E636386256EDF00510840?OpenDocument 14CFR 21.191] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610094213/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/A9986A485C9E636386256EDF00510840?OpenDocument |date=2021-06-10 }}, US Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 2018-01-12

{{Main|Model aircraft}}{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

• Early flying machines
• Flight altitude record
• List of aircraft
• List of civil aircraft
• List of fighter aircraft
• List of individual aircraft
• List of large aircraft
• List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms

• Aircraft hijacking
• Aircraft spotting
• Air traffic control
• Airport
• Flying car
• Personal air vehicle
• Powered parachute
• Spacecraft
• Spaceplane

{{Reflist|refs=

Gunston 1986, p. 274

}}

• {{Cite book|last=Gunston|first=Bill|title=Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1987|year=1987|publisher=Jane's Publishing Company Limited|location=London, England|isbn=978-0-7106-0365-4}}

{{Wiktionary|aircraft}}

{{Commons category}}

• [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227182437/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm |date=27 December 2007 }}
• [http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html Virtual Museum]
• [http://www.nasm.si.edu/ Smithsonian Air and Space Museum] – online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft
• [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/36582/amazing-early-flying-machines Amazing Early Flying Machines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091213011847/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/36582/amazing-early-flying-machines |date=13 December 2009 }} slideshow by Life magazine

• [http://www.airliners.net/ Airliners.net]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080624032037/http://www.aviationdictionary.org/ Aviation Dictionary] – free aviation terms, phrases and jargons
• [https://www.newscientist.com/topic/aviation New Scientist{{'}}s aviation page]

{{Aircraft types (by method of thrust and lift)}}

{{Lists of aircraft}}

{{Aircraft components}}

{{Authority control}}