Alcohol and sex

Low to moderate alcohol consumption is shown to have a protective effect for men's erectile function. Several reviews and meta-analyses of existing literature show that low to moderate alcohol consumption significantly decreases erectile dysfunction risk.{{cite journal

|first1=Mark S |last1=Allen

|first2=Emma E |last2=Walter

|year=2018

|title=Health-Related Lifestyle Factors and Sexual Dysfunction: A Meta-Analysis of Population-Based Research

|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine

|volume=15 |issue=4

|pages=458–475

|url=https://www.jsm.jsexmed.org/article/S1743-6095(18)30124-3/fulltext

|doi=10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.02.008

|pmid=29523476

|url-access=subscription

}}{{cite journal

|first1=J Y W |last1=Cheng

|first2=E M L |last2=Ng

|first3=R Y L |last3=Chen

|first4=J S N |last4=Ko

|year=2007

|title=Alcohol consumption and erectile dysfunction: meta-analysis of population-based studies

|journal=International Journal of Impotence Research

|volume=19 |issue=4

|pages=343–352

|doi=10.1038/sj.ijir.3901556

|pmid=17538641

|doi-access=

}}{{cite journal

|first1=Xiao-Ming |last1=Wang

|first2=Yun-Jin |last2=Bai

|first3=Yu-Bo |last3=Yang

|first4=Jin-Hong |last4=Li

|first5=Yin |last5=Tang

|first6=Ping |last6=Han

|year=2018

|title=Alcohol intake and risk of erectile dysfunction: a dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies

|journal=International Journal of Impotence Research

|volume=30 |issue=6

|pages=342–351

|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41443-018-0022-x

|doi=10.1038/s41443-018-0022-x

|pmid=30232467

|s2cid=52300588

|url-access=subscription

}}{{cite journal

|first1=Bang-Ping |last1=Jiann

|year=2010

|title=Effect of Alcohol Consumption on the Risk of Erectile Dysfunction

|journal=Urol Sci

|volume=21 |issue=4

|pages=163–168

|doi=10.1016/S1879-5226(10)60037-1

|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82131458.pdf

|doi-access=free

}}

Men's sexual behaviors can be affected dramatically by high alcohol consumption. Both chronic and acute alcohol consumption have been shown in most studies{{cite journal

|last1=Frias |first1=J

|last2=Torres |first2=JM

|last3=Miranda |first3=MT

|last4=Ruiz |first4=E

|last5=Ortega |first5=E

|year=2002

|title=Effects of acute alcohol intoxication on pituitary-gonadal axis hormones, pituitary-adrenal axis hormones, beta-endorphin and prolactin in human adults of both sexes

|journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism

|volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=169–73

|doi=10.1093/alcalc/37.2.169

|pmid=11912073

|doi-access=free

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Mendelson |first1=JH

|last2=Ellingboe |first2=J

|last3=Mello |first3=NK

|last4=Kuehnle |first4=John

|year=1978

|title=Effects of Alcohol on Plasma Testosterone and Luteinizing Hormone Levels

|journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research

|volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=255–8

|doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.1978.tb05808.x

|pmid=356646

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Mendelson |first1=JH

|last2=Mello |first2=NK

|last3=Ellingboe |first3=J

|year=1977

|title=Effects of acute alcohol intake on pituitary-gonadal hormones in normal human males

|journal=Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

|volume=202 |issue=3 |pages=676–82

|doi=10.1016/S0022-3565(25)31003-7

|pmid=894528

}} (but not all

{{cite journal

|last1=Sarkola|first1=T

|last2=Eriksson|first2=CJP

|year=2003

|title=Testosterone Increases in Men After a Low Dose of Alcohol

|journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research

|volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=682–685

|doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2003.tb04405.x

|pmid=12711931

}}) to inhibit testosterone production in the testes. This is believed to be caused by the metabolism of alcohol reducing the NAD⁺/NADH ratio both in the liver and the testes; since the synthesis of testosterone requires NAD⁺, this tends to reduce testosterone production.

{{cite book

|last1=Emanuele |first1=MA

|last2=Halloran |first2=MM

|last3=Uddin |first3=S

|last4=Tentler |first4=JJ

|last5=Emanuele |first5=NV

|last6=Lawrence |first6=AM

|last7=Kelly |first7=MR

|year=1993

|chapter=The effects of alcohol on the neuroendocrine control of reproduction

|editor1-last=Zakhari |editor1-first=S

|title=Alcohol and the Endocrine System

|pages=89–116

|publisher=National Institute of Health Publications

|id=NIH Pub 93-3533

}}

{{cite journal

|last1=Ellingboe |first1=J

|last2=Varanelli |first2=CC

|year=1979

|title=Ethanol inhibits testosterone biosynthesis by direct action on Leydig cells

|journal=Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology

|volume=24|issue=1|pages=87–102

|pmid=219455

}}

As testosterone is critical for libido and physical arousal, alcohol tends to have deleterious effects on male sexual performance. Studies have been conducted that indicate increasing levels of alcohol intoxication produce a significant degradation in male masturbatory effectiveness (MME). This degradation was measured by measuring blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and ejaculation latency.

{{cite journal

|last1=Halpernfelsher |first1=B

|last2=Millstein |first2=S

|last3=Ellen |first3=J

|year=1996

|title=Relationship of alcohol use and risky sexual behavior: A review and analysis of findings

|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health

|volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=331–6

|doi=10.1016/S1054-139X(96)00024-9

|pmid=8934293

}} Alcohol intoxication can decrease sexual arousal, decrease pleasureability and intensity of orgasm, and increase difficulty in attaining orgasm.

In women, the effects of alcohol on libido in the literature are mixed. Some women report that alcohol increases sexual arousal and desire, however, some studies show alcohol lowers the physiological signs of arousal.{{cite journal|last2=Ackerman|first2=KT|year=1995|title=Women, alcohol, and sexuality|journal=Recent Developments in Alcoholism|volume=12|pages=267–85|pmid=7624547|last1=Beckman|first1=LJ|doi=10.1007/0-306-47138-8_18|isbn=978-0-306-44921-5}} A 2016 study found that alcohol negatively affected how positive the sexual experience was in both men and women.{{Cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=M. Lynne|last2=O'Hara|first2=Ross E.|last3=Martins|first3=Jorge|date=16 July 2015|title=Does Drinking Improve the Quality of Sexual Experience?: Sex-Specific Alcohol Expectancies and Subjective Experience on Drinking Versus Sober Sexual Occasions|journal=AIDS and Behavior|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=40–51|doi=10.1007/s10461-015-1136-5|pmid=26179171|s2cid=41604244|issn= 1090-7165}} Studies have shown that acute alcohol consumption tends to cause increased levels of testosterone and estradiol.{{cite journal|last2=Fukunaga|first2=T|last3=Mäkisalo|first3=H|last4=Peter Eriksson|first4=CJ|year=2000|title=Acute Effect of Alcohol on Androgens in Premenopausal Women|journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism|volume=35|issue=1|pages=84–90|doi=10.1093/alcalc/35.1.84|pmid=10684783|last1=Sarkola|first1=T|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal|year=1987|title=Acute effects of ethanol on sex hormones in non-alcoholic men and women|journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism Supplement|volume=1|pages=109–16|pmid=3122772|last1=Ellingboe|first1= J}} Since testosterone controls in part the strength of libido in women, this could be a physiological cause for an increased interest in sex. Also, because women have a higher percentage of body fat and less water in their bodies, alcohol can have a quicker, more severe impact. Women's bodies take longer to process alcohol; more precisely, a woman's body often takes one-third longer to eliminate the substance.

Sexual behavior in women under the influence of alcohol is also different from men. Studies have shown that increased BAC is associated with longer orgasmic latencies and decreased intensity of orgasm. Some women report a greater sexual arousal with increased alcohol consumption as well as increased sensations of pleasure during orgasm. Because ejaculatory response is visual and can more easily be measured in males, orgasmic response must be measured more intimately. In studies of the female orgasm under the influence of alcohol, orgasmic latencies were measured using a vaginal photoplethysmograph, which essentially measures vaginal blood volume.

Psychologically, alcohol has also played a role in sexual behavior. It has been reported that women who were intoxicated believed they were more sexually aroused than before consumption of alcohol. This psychological effect contrasts with the physiological effects measured, but refers back to the loss of inhibitions because of alcohol. Often, alcohol can influence the capacity for a woman to feel more relaxed and in turn, be more sexual. Alcohol may be considered by some women to be a sexual disinhibitor.

Some studies have made a connection between hookup culture and substance use. Most students said that their hookups occurred after drinking alcohol.{{cite magazine|url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/02/ce-corner.aspx |title=Sexual Hook-up Culture|access-date=4 June 2013|publisher=American Psychological Association|date=February 2013 |first1=Justin R. |last1=Garcia|first2=Chris|last2=Reiber|first3=Sean G.|last3=Massey|first4=Ann M. |last4=Merriwether|magazine=Monitor on Psychology|volume=44|number=2|page=60}}{{Cite journal|title=Predictors and Consequences of Sexual "Hookups" Among College Students: A Short-Term Prospective Study|year=2010|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|pages= 1105–1119|volume= 39|number= 5|doi= 10.1007/s10508-008-9448-4 |pmid=19130207|last1=Fielder|first1=R. L.|last2=Carey|first2=M. P.|pmc=2933280}}{{Cite journal

| title = Predictors of Hooking Up Sexual Behavior and Emotional Reactions Among U.S. College Students

| year = 2011

| journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior

| doi = 10.1007/s10508-011-9817-2

| pmid = 21796484

| last1 = Lewis | first1 = M. A.

| last2 = Granato | first2 = H.

| last3 = Blayney | first3 = J. A.

| last4 = Lostutter | first4 = T. W.

| last5 = Kilmer | first5 = J. R. | volume=41 | issue = 5

| pages=1219–1229| pmc =4397976}} Frietas stated that in her study, the relationships between drinking and the party scene and between alcohol and hookup culture were "impossible to miss".{{sfn|Freitas|2013|p=41}}

Studies suggest that the degree of alcoholic intoxication in young people directly correlates with the level of risky behavior,{{cite journal | title = 'Hookups': Characteristics and Correlates of College Students' Spontaneous and Anonymous Sexual Experiences | year = 2000 | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 76–88 | doi = 10.1080/00224490009552023 | vauthors = Paul EL, McManus B, Hayes A | doi-access = free }} such as engaging in multiple sex partners.{{cite journal |last1=Santelli |first1=JS |last2=Brener |first2=ND |last3=Lowry |first3=R |last4=Bhatt |first4=A |last5=Zabin |first5=LS |title=Multiple sexual partners among U.S. adolescents and young adults. |journal=Family Planning Perspectives |date=November 1998 |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=271–5 |doi=10.2307/2991502 |jstor=2991502 |pmid=9859017}}

In 2018, the first study of its kind, found that alcohol and caffeinated energy drinks is linked with casual, risky sex among college-age adults.{{cite journal |last1=Ball |first1=NJ |last2=Miller |first2=KE |last3=Quigley |first3=BM |last4=Eliseo-Arras |first4=RK |title=Alcohol Mixed With Energy Drinks and Sexually Related Causes of Conflict in the Barroom. |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |date=April 2021 |volume=36 |issue=7–8 |pages=3353–3373 |doi=10.1177/0886260518774298 |pmid=29779427|s2cid=29150434 }}

{{for|alcohol-related environments linked to sexually transmitted infections in the LGBTQ culture|Circuit party|gay bar}}

File:(ORANGE) Pregnancy.jpg media campaign poster specifically highlighting that responsible alcohol use may prevent risky sexual behavior that often results in unplanned pregnancy]]

Alcohol intoxication is associated with an increased risk that people will become involved in risky sexual behaviors, such as unprotected sex. Both men,{{cite journal |last1=Neilson |first1=EC |last2=Marcantonio |first2=TL |last3=Woerner |first3=J |last4=Leone |first4=RM |last5=Haikalis |first5=M |last6=Davis |first6=KC |author-link6=Kelly Cue Davis |date=March 2024 |title=Alcohol intoxication, condom use rationale, and men's coercive condom use resistance: The role of past unintended partner pregnancy. |journal=Psychology of Addictive Behaviors |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=173–184 |doi=10.1037/adb0000956 |pmc=10932814 |pmid=37707467 }} and women,{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=KC |author-link=Kelly Cue Davis |last2=Masters |first2=NT |last3=Eakins |first3=D |last4=Danube |first4=CL |last5=George |first5=WH |last6=Norris |first6=J |last7=Heiman |first7=JR |date=January 2014 |title=Alcohol intoxication and condom use self-efficacy effects on women's condom use intentions. |journal=Addictive Behaviors |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=153–8 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.09.019 |pmc=3940263 |pmid=24129265}} reported higher intentions to avoid using a condom when they were intoxicated by alcohol.

Coitus interruptus, also known as withdrawal, pulling out or the pull-out method, is a method of birth control during penetrative sexual intercourse, whereby the penis is withdrawn from a vagina or anus prior to ejaculation so that the ejaculate (semen) may be directed away in an effort to avoid insemination.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogow D, Horowitz S | title = Withdrawal: a review of the literature and an agenda for research | journal = Studies in Family Planning | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 140–53 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7570764 | doi = 10.2307/2137833 | jstor = 2137833 }}, which cites:

:Population Action International (1991). "A Guide to Methods of Birth Control". Briefing Paper No. 25, Washington, D. C.{{Cite web | vauthors = Casey FE | date = 20 March 2024 | veditors = Talavera F, Barnes AD |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/258507-overview#a3|title=Coitus interruptus|website=Medscape.com|access-date=24 July 2019|archive-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729011847/https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/258507-overview#a3|url-status=live}} Coitus interruptus carries a risk of STIs and unintended pregnancy. This risk is especially high during alcohol intoxication because lowered sexual inhibition can make it difficult to withdraw in time.

Women with unintended pregnancies are more likely to smoke tobacco,{{cite journal |vauthors=Castles A, Adams EK, Melvin CL, Kelsch C, Boulton ML |title=Effects of smoking during pregnancy. Five meta-analyses |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=208–215 |date=April 1999 |pmid=10198660 |doi=10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00089-0 |s2cid=33535194}} drink alcohol during pregnancy,{{cite book |vauthors=Eisenberg L, Brown SH |title=The best intentions: unintended pregnancy and the well-being of children and families |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1995 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bestintentionsun0000unse/page/68 68–70] |isbn=978-0-309-05230-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/bestintentionsun0000unse/page/68}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr055.pdf|title=Intended and Unintended Births in the United States: 1982–2010|date=24 July 2012|website=Centers for Disease Control|access-date=3 September 2019}} and binge drink during pregnancy, which results in poorer health outcomes. (See also: fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)

{{Main|Beer goggles}}

Rape is any sexual activity that occurs without the freely given consent of one of the parties involved. This includes alcohol-facilitated sexual assault which is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, or non-consensual condom removal which is criminalized in some countries (see the map below).

A 2008 study found that rapists typically consumed relatively high amounts of alcohol and infrequently used condoms during assaults, which was linked to a significant increase in STI transmission.{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis KC, Schraufnagel TJ, George WH, Norris J | title = The use of alcohol and condoms during sexual assault | journal = American Journal of Men's Health | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 281–290 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 19477791 | pmc = 4617377 | doi = 10.1177/1557988308320008 }} This also increases the risk of pregnancy from rape for female victims. Some people turn to drugs or alcohol to cope with emotional trauma after a rape; use of these during pregnancy can harm the fetus.{{cite book| vauthors = Price S |title=Mental Health in Pregnancy and Childbirth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8h2mZD9w1IC&pg=PA173|access-date=15 February 2013|year= 2007|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-443-10317-9|pages = 151–152}}

File:Edvard Munch-The Day After.jpg" drinks.{{cite journal | vauthors = ElSohly MA, Salamone SJ | title = Prevalence of drugs used in cases of alleged sexual assault | journal = Journal of Analytical Toxicology | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 141–146 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10369321 | doi = 10.1093/jat/23.3.141 | doi-access = free }}]]

{{see also|Campus sexual assault}}

One of the most common date rape drugs is alcohol,{{cite web | url = http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/85513.php | title = Alcohol Is Most Common 'Date Rape' Drug | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071017030317/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/85513.php | archive-date=17 October 2007 | work = Medicalnewstoday.com. | access-date = 1 June 2011 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Schwartz RH, Milteer R, LeBeau MA | title = Drug-facilitated sexual assault ('date rape') | journal = Southern Medical Journal | volume = 93 | issue = 6 | pages = 558–61 | date = June 2000 | pmid = 10881768 | doi = 10.1097/00007611-200093060-00002 }}{{cite book | veditors = Holstege CP, Saathoff GB, Neer TM, Furbee RB |title=Criminal poisoning: clinical and forensic perspectives|url=https://archive.org/details/criminalpoisonin00hols_101|url-access=limited|publisher=Jones and Bartlett Publishers|location=Sudbury, Mass.|isbn=978-0-7637-4463-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/criminalpoisonin00hols_101/page/n250 232]|date=25 October 2010}} administered either surreptitiously{{cite book | vauthors = Lyman MD |title=Practical drug enforcement |year=2006 |publisher=CRC |location=Boca Raton, Fla.|isbn=0849398088|page=70|edition=3rd}} or consumed voluntarily, rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent. The perpetrator then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as alcohol- or drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA).{{cite journal | vauthors = Thompson KM | title = Beyond roofies: Drug- and alcohol-facilitated sexual assault | journal = JAAPA | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–49 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33332834 | doi = 10.1097/01.JAA.0000723940.92815.0b }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hall JA, Moore CB | title = Drug facilitated sexual assault—a review | journal = Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 291–7 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18511003 | doi = 10.1016/j.jflm.2007.12.005 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Beynon CM, McVeigh C, McVeigh J, Leavey C, Bellis MA | title = The involvement of drugs and alcohol in drug-facilitated sexual assault: a systematic review of the evidence | journal = Trauma, Violence & Abuse | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–88 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18541699 | doi = 10.1177/1524838008320221 | s2cid = 27520472 }} Many perpetrators use alcohol because their victims often drink it willingly, and can be encouraged to drink enough to lose inhibitions or consciousness.[http://survive.org.uk/date-rape.html Date Rape]. Survive.org.uk (20 March 2000). Retrieved on 1 June 2011. However, sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.{{cite web | url = http://survive.org.uk/date-rape.html | title = Date Rape | work = Survive.org.uk | date = 20 March 2000 | access-date = 1 June 2011 }} The risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky sexual behavior increases with alcohol abuse,{{cite journal | vauthors = Chersich MF, Rees HV | title = Causal links between binge drinking patterns, unsafe sex and HIV in South Africa: its time to intervene | journal = International Journal of STD & AIDS | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–7 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20029060 | doi = 10.1258/ijsa.2000.009432 | s2cid = 3100905 }} and by the consumption of caffeinated alcoholic drinks.{{cite web |title=Consumption of alcohol/energy drink mixes linked with casual, risky sex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/07/120725120644.htm |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ball NJ, Miller KE, Quigley BM, Eliseo-Arras RK | title = Alcohol Mixed With Energy Drinks and Sexually Related Causes of Conflict in the Barroom | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 36 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 3353–3373 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 29779427 | doi = 10.1177/0886260518774298 | s2cid = 29150434 }}

[[File:Stealthinglaws.png|300px|thumb|

{{legend|#FF2A2A|Court decision declaring stealthing as rape or sexual assault}}

{{legend|#2596be|Law prohibiting stealthing}}

]]

Non-consensual condom removal, or "stealthing",{{Cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/inside-the-online-community-of-men-who-preach-removing-condoms-without-consent_us_58f75eb2e4b05b9d613eb997|title=Inside The Online Community Of Men Who Preach Removing Condoms Without Consent| vauthors = Hatch J |date=21 April 2017|work=Huffington Post|access-date=23 April 2017}} is the practice of a person removing a condom during sexual intercourse without consent, when their sex partner has only consented to condom-protected sex.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Chesser B, Zahra A |date=22 May 2019 |title=Stealthing: a criminal offence? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10345329.2019.1604474?needAccess=true |journal=Current Issues in Criminal Justice |publisher=Sydney Law School |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=217–235 |doi=10.1080/10345329.2019.1604474 |s2cid=182850828 |access-date=18 February 2021|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Brodsky A |title='Rape-Adjacent': Imagining Legal Responses to Nonconsensual Condom Removal |journal=Columbia Journal of Gender and Law |volume=32 |issue=2 |year=2017 |ssrn=2954726 }} Purposefully damaging a condom before or during intercourse may also be referred to as stealthing,{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/27/health/stealthing-sexual-assault-condoms/index.html|title=Some call it 'stealthing,' others call it sexual assault| vauthors = Michael N |date=27 April 2017 |publisher=CNN}} regardless of who damaged the condom.

Consuming alcohol can be risky in sexual situations. It can impair judgment and make it difficult for both people to give or receive informed sexual consent. However, a history of sexual aggression and alcohol intoxication are factors associated with an increased risk of men employing non-consensual condom removal and engaging in sexually aggressive behavior with female partners.{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis KC, Danube CL, Neilson EC, Stappenbeck CA, Norris J, George WH, Kajumulo KF | title = Distal and Proximal Influences on Men's Intentions to Resist Condoms: Alcohol, Sexual Aggression History, Impulsivity, and Social-Cognitive Factors | journal = AIDS and Behavior | volume = 20 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S147–S157 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26156881 | pmc = 4706816 | doi = 10.1007/s10461-015-1132-9 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis KC | title = The influence of alcohol expectancies and intoxication on men's aggressive unprotected sexual intentions | journal = Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 418–428 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20939645 | pmc = 3000798 | doi = 10.1037/a0020510 }}

The use of alcohol is a documented factor in wartime sexual violence.

For example, rape during the liberation of Serbia was committed by Soviet Red Army soldiers against women during their advance to Berlin in late 1944 and early 1945 during World War II. Serbian journalist Vuk Perišić said about the rapes: "The rapes were extremely brutal, under the influence of alcohol and usually by a group of soldiers. The Soviet soldiers did not pay attention to the fact that Serbia was their ally, and there is no doubt that the Soviet high command tacitly approved the rape."{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/hr/njema%C4%8Dke-%C5%BEene-nisu-silovali-samo-sovjetski-vojnici/a-18288847|title='Njemačke žene nisu silovali samo sovjetski vojnici' |date=3 February 2015|last=Hoffman|first=Sarah|website=DW|language=hr|access-date=2 July 2022}}

While there wasn't a codified international law specifically prohibiting rape during World War II, customary international law principles already existed that condemned violence against civilians. These principles formed the basis for the development of more explicit laws after the war,{{cite web | title=Rule 93. Rape and Other forms of Sexual Violence | website=ihl-databases.icrc.org | url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/v1/rule93 | access-date=12 June 2024}} including the Nuremberg Principles established in 1950.

{{Main|Beer goggles}}

{{Wiktionary|beer goggles}}

A study published in 2003 supported the beer goggles hypothesis; however, it also found that another explanation is that regular drinkers tend to have personality traits that mean they find people more attractive, whether or not they are under the influence of alcohol at the time.

{{cite journal

|last1=Jones |first1=BT

|last2=Jones |first2=BC

|last3=Thomas |first3=AP

|last4=Piper |first4=J

|year=2003

|title=Alcohol consumption increases attractiveness ratings of opposite-sex faces: A possible third route to risky sex

|journal=Addiction

|volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=1069–75

|pmid=12873241

|doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00426.x

|doi-access=free

}} A 2009 study showed that while men found adult women (who were wearing makeup) more attractive after consuming alcohol, the alcohol did not interfere with their ability to determine a woman's age.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Egan | first1 = V

| last2 = Cordan | first2 = G

| year = 2009

| title = Barely legal: Is attraction and estimated age of young female faces disrupted by alcohol use, make up, and the sex of the observer?

| journal = British Journal of Psychology

| volume = 100 | issue = 2 | pages = 415–27

| pmid = 18851766

| doi = 10.1348/000712608X357858

}}

A 2021 study found that bar patrons rated themselves as more attractive towards the end of the night, regardless of their level of intoxication, and that this effect had more to do with motivations to attract a mate. The "closing time effect" was tested in Danish bars, with researchers separating responses based on whether bar patrons had filled out their survey in the afternoon, evening, or night, and finding that people attending the bar at night rated themselves as more attractive than earlier visitors.{{Cite web |last=Ellwood |first=Beth |date=22 September 2021 |title=Bar patrons feel more attractive the closer it is to closing time, regardless of how much alcohol they've had |url=https://www.psypost.org/2021/09/bar-patrons-feel-more-attractive-the-closer-it-is-to-closing-time-regardless-of-how-much-alcohol-theyve-had-61875 |access-date=5 April 2023 |website=PsyPost |language=en-US}}

{{Portal|Drink|Human sexuality}}

• Sex and drugs

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book

| title=The End of Sex: How Hookup Culture is Leaving a Generation Unhappy, Sexually Unfulfilled, and Confused About Intimacy

| last=Freitas

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| year=2013

| publisher=Basic Books

| location=New York

| isbn=978-0-465-00215-3

}}

• {{cite book

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|title=Mental Health in Pregnancy and Childbirth

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|access-date=15 February 2013

|year= 2007

|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences

|isbn=978-0-443-10317-9

}}

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• {{cite web |last1= |first1= |date=March 2023 |title=What Is GHB? |url=https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/drugs-ghb.html |publisher=KidsHealth.org |access-date= |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Malatesta |first1=V |last2=Pollack |first2=R |last3=Crotty |first3=T |last4=Peacock |first4=L |year=1982 |title=Acute alcohol intoxication and female orgasmic response |journal=Journal of Sex Research |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi= 10.1080/00224498209551130 }}
• {{cite journal |last1= Malatesta|first1=V |last2=Pollack |first2=R |last3=Wilbanks |first3=WA |last4=Adams |first4=H |year=1979 |title=Alcohol effects on the orgasmic-ejaculatory response in human males |journal=Journal of Sex Research |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=101–108 |doi= 10.1080/00224497909551027 |pmid= 491549}}
• {{cite book |last1=Ridberg |first1=R |year=2004 |title=Spin the Bottle: Sex, Lies & Alcohol |publisher=Media Education Foundation |isbn=978-1-893521-89-6}}

{{Alcohol and health}}

Category:Alcohol

Category:Human sexuality

Category:Sex and drugs