birth control

{{See also|Comparison of birth control methods}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"

|+Chance of pregnancy during first year of use{{cite journal | vauthors = Trussell J | title = Contraceptive failure in the United States | journal = Contraception | volume = 83 | issue = 5 | pages = 397–404 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21477680 | pmc = 3638209 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2011.01.021 }}
{{cite book| vauthors = Trussell J |year=2011|chapter=Contraceptive efficacy | veditors = Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates Jr W, Kowal D, Policar MS|title=Contraceptive technology|edition=20th revised|location=New York|publisher=Ardent Media|pages=779–863|isbn=978-1-59708-004-0|issn=0091-9721|oclc=781956734}}{{cite journal | title = U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use, 2013: adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition | journal = MMWR. Recommendations and Reports | volume = 62 | issue = RR-05 | pages = 1–60 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23784109 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6205a1.htm | url-status = live | df = mdy-all | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130710101031/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6205a1.htm | archive-date = July 10, 2013 | publisher = Division Of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention Health Promotion, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}

! Method !! Typical use !! Perfect use

|-

| No birth control || 85% || 85%

|-

| Combination pill|| 9% || 0.3%

|-

| Progestogen-only pill|| 13% || 1.1%

|-

| Sterilization (female) || 0.5% || 0.5%

|-

| Sterilization (male) || 0.15% || 0.1%

|-

| Condom (female)|| 21%|| 5%

|-

| Condom (male)|| 18% || 2%

|-

| Copper IUD|| 0.8% || 0.6%

|-

| Hormonal IUD|| 0.2% || 0.2%

|-

| Patch|| 9% || 0.3%

|-

| Vaginal ring|| 9% || 0.3%

|-

| MPA shot || 6% || 0.2%

|-

| Implant|| 0.05% || 0.05%

|-

| Diaphragm and spermicide|| 12% || 6%

|-

| Fertility awareness|| 24% || 0.4–5%

|-

| Withdrawal|| 22% || 4%

|-

| Lactational amenorrhea method
(6 months failure rate) || 0–7.5%{{cite journal | vauthors = Van der Wijden C, Manion C | title = Lactational amenorrhoea method for family planning | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 10 | pages = CD001329 | date = October 2015 | volume = 2015 | pmid = 26457821 | pmc = 6823189 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD001329.pub2 }} || <2%

|}

Birth control methods include barrier methods, hormonal birth control, intrauterine devices (IUDs), sterilization, and behavioral methods. They are used before or during sex while emergency contraceptives are effective for up to five days after sex. Effectiveness is generally expressed as the percentage of women who become pregnant using a given method during the first year,{{cite book| vauthors = Edlin G, Golanty E, Brown KM |title=Essentials for health and wellness|year=2000|publisher=Jones and Bartlett|location=Sudbury, MA|isbn=978-0-7637-0909-9|page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0H4iyS_DFwC&pg=PA162|edition=2nd|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610000602/https://books.google.com/books?id=_0H4iyS_DFwC&pg=PA162|archive-date=June 10, 2016|df=mdy-all}} and sometimes as a lifetime failure rate among methods with high effectiveness, such as tubal ligation.{{cite book| veditors = Edmonds DK |title=Dewhurst's textbook of obstetrics & gynaecology|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2012|location=Chichester, West Sussex|isbn=978-0-470-65457-6|page=508|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HfakBRceodcC&pg=PA508|edition=8th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503061741/https://books.google.com/books?id=HfakBRceodcC&pg=PA508|archive-date=May 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

Birth control methods fall into two main categories: male contraception and female contraception. Common male contraceptives are withdrawal, condoms, and vasectomy. Female contraception is more developed compared to male contraception, these include contraceptive pills (combination and progestin-only pill), hormonal or non-hormonal IUD, patch, vaginal ring, diaphragm, shot, implant, fertility awareness, and tubal ligation.

The most effective methods are long-acting and do not require ongoing health care visits. Surgical sterilization, implantable hormones, and intrauterine devices all have first-year failure rates of less than 1%. Hormonal contraceptive pills, patches or vaginal rings, and the lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), if adhered to strictly, can also have first-year (or for LAM, first-6-month) failure rates of less than 1%. With typical use, first-year failure rates are considerably higher, at 9%, due to inconsistent use. Other methods such as condoms, diaphragms, and spermicides have higher first-year failure rates even with perfect usage. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends long acting reversible birth control as first line for young individuals.{{cite journal | title = Contraception for adolescents | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 134 | issue = 4 | pages = e1244-56 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25266430 | pmc = 1070796 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2014-2299 | author1 = Committee on Adolescence }}

While all methods of birth control have some potential adverse effects, the risk is less than that of pregnancy.{{cite book| vauthors = Cunningham FG, Stuart GS |year=2012|chapter=Contraception and sterilization| veditors = B, Schorge JO, Schaffer JI, Halvorson LM, Bradshaw KD, Cunningham FG |title=Williams gynecology|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|pages=132–69|isbn=978-0-07-171672-7}} After stopping or removing many methods of birth control, including oral contraceptives, IUDs, implants and injections, the rate of pregnancy during the subsequent year is the same as for those who used no birth control.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mansour D, Gemzell-Danielsson K, Inki P, Jensen JT | title = Fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a comprehensive review of the literature | journal = Contraception | volume = 84 | issue = 5 | pages = 465–77 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 22018120 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2011.04.002 }}

For individuals with specific health problems, certain forms of birth control may require further investigations. For women who are otherwise healthy, many methods of birth control should not require a medical exam—including birth control pills, injectable or implantable birth control, and condoms.{{cite book| author = Department of Reproductive Health and Research, Family and Community|title=Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use.|year=2004|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-156284-3|page=Chapter 31|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241562846.pdf|edition=2nd|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718091826/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241562846.pdf|archive-date=July 18, 2013|df=mdy-all}} For example, a pelvic exam, breast exam, or blood test before starting birth control pills does not appear to affect outcomes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA | title = Physical examination prior to initiating hormonal contraception: a systematic review | journal = Contraception | volume = 87 | issue = 5 | pages = 650–4 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23121820 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.010 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1258859 }}{{cite web |title=American Academy of Family Physicians {{!}} Choosing Wisely |url=http://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-academy-of-family-physicians/ |website=www.choosingwisely.org |date=February 24, 2015 |access-date=14 August 2018}} In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of birth control.{{cite book |title=Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use|year=2009|publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-156388-8|pages=1–10|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|edition=4th|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709230021/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|archive-date=July 9, 2012|df=mdy-all}}

Hormonal contraception is available in a number of different forms, including oral pills, implants under the skin, injections, patches, IUDs and a vaginal ring. They are currently available only for women, although hormonal contraceptives for men have been and are being clinically tested.{{cite news| vauthors = Mackenzie J |title=The male pill? Bring it on|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/06/male-contraceptive-pill-bring-it-on|access-date=May 20, 2014|newspaper=The Guardian|date=December 6, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521031817/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/06/male-contraceptive-pill-bring-it-on|archive-date=May 21, 2014|df=mdy-all}} There are two types of oral birth control pills, the combined oral contraceptive pills (which contain both estrogen and a progestin) and the progestogen-only pills (sometimes called minipills).{{cite book| vauthors = Ammer C |year=2009|chapter=oral contraceptive|title=The encyclopedia of women's health|edition=6th|location=New York|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-7407-5|pages=312–15|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MRDimrELCIC&q=oral+contraceptive&pg=PA312}} If either is taken during pregnancy, they do not increase the risk of miscarriage nor cause birth defects. Both types of birth control pills prevent fertilization mainly by inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucus.{{cite book| vauthors = Nelson A, Cwiak C |year=2011|chapter=Combined oral contraceptives (COCs)| veditors = Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates Jr W, Kowal D, Policar MS |title=Contraceptive technology|edition=20th revised|location=New York|publisher=Ardent Media|pages=249–341 [257–58]|isbn=978-1-59708-004-0|issn=0091-9721|oclc=781956734}}{{cite book| vauthors = Hoffman BL |title=Williams gynecology|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-171672-7|edition=2nd|chapter=5 Second-Tier Contraceptive Methods—Very Effective}} They may also change the lining of the uterus and thus decrease implantation. Their effectiveness depends on the user's adherence to taking the pills.

Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slightly increased risk of venous and arterial blood clots. Venous clots, on average, increase from 2.8 to 9.8 per 10,000 women years{{cite journal | vauthors = Stegeman BH, de Bastos M, Rosendaal FR, van Hylckama Vlieg A, Helmerhorst FM, Stijnen T, Dekkers OM | title = Different combined oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thrombosis: systematic review and network meta-analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 347 | pages = f5298 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24030561 | pmc = 3771677 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.f5298 }} which is still less than that associated with pregnancy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brito MB, Nobre F, Vieira CS | title = Hormonal contraception and cardiovascular system | journal = Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia | volume = 96 | issue = 4 | pages = e81-9 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21359483 | doi = 10.1590/S0066-782X2011005000022 | doi-access = free }} Due to this risk, they are not recommended in women over 35 years of age who continue to smoke.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kurver MJ, van der Wijden CL, Burgers J | title = [Summary of the Dutch College of General Practitioners' practice guideline 'Contraception'] | language = nl | journal = Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde | volume = 156 | issue = 41 | pages = A5083 | date = October 4, 2012 | pmid = 23062257 | url = http://www.ntvg.nl/publicatie/samenvatting-van-de-nhg-standaard-%27anticonceptie%27 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Due to the increased risk, they are included in decision tools such as the DASH score and PERC rule used to predict the risk of blood clots.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tosetto A, Iorio A, Marcucci M, Baglin T, Cushman M, Eichinger S, Palareti G, Poli D, Tait RC, Douketis J | display-authors = 6 | title = Predicting disease recurrence in patients with previous unprovoked venous thromboembolism: a proposed prediction score (DASH) | journal = Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 1019–25 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22489957 | doi = 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04735.x | s2cid = 27149654 | doi-access = free }}

The effect on sexual drive is varied, with an increase or decrease in some but with no effect in most.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burrows LJ, Basha M, Goldstein AT | title = The effects of hormonal contraceptives on female sexuality: a review | journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | pages = 2213–23 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 22788250 | doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02848.x }} Combined oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer and do not change the risk of breast cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Havrilesky LJ, Moorman PG, Lowery WJ, Gierisch JM, Coeytaux RR, Urrutia RP, Dinan M, McBroom AJ, Hasselblad V, Sanders GD, Myers ER | display-authors = 6 | title = Oral contraceptive pills as primary prevention for ovarian cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 122 | issue = 1 | pages = 139–47 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23743450 | doi = 10.1097/AOG.0b013e318291c235 | s2cid = 31552437 }} They often reduce menstrual bleeding and painful menstruation cramps.{{cite book|author=World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and Research|title=Family planning: A global handbook for providers: Evidence-based guidance developed through worldwide collaboration|year=2011|pages=1–10|publisher=WHO and Center for Communication Programs|location=Geneva|isbn=978-0-9788563-7-3|url=http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|edition=Rev. and Updated|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054335/http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|archive-date=September 21, 2013|df=mdy-all}} The lower doses of estrogen released from the vaginal ring may reduce the risk of breast tenderness, nausea, and headache associated with higher dose estrogen products.{{cite journal | vauthors = Shulman LP | title = The state of hormonal contraception today: benefits and risks of hormonal contraceptives: combined estrogen and progestin contraceptives | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 205 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = S9-13 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21961825 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2011.06.057 }}

Progestin-only pills, injections, and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of blood clots and may be used by women with a history of blood clots in their veins.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mantha S, Karp R, Raghavan V, Terrin N, Bauer KA, Zwicker JI | title = Assessing the risk of venous thromboembolic events in women taking progestin-only contraception: a meta-analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 345 | issue = aug07 2 | pages = e4944 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22872710 | pmc = 3413580 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.e4944 }} In those with a history of arterial blood clots, non-hormonal birth control or a progestin-only method other than the injectable version should be used. Progestin-only pills may improve menstrual symptoms and can be used by breastfeeding women as they do not affect milk production. Irregular bleeding may occur with progestin-only methods, with some users reporting no periods.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burke AE | title = The state of hormonal contraception today: benefits and risks of hormonal contraceptives: progestin-only contraceptives | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 205 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = S14-7 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21961819 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2011.04.033 }} The progestins drospirenone and desogestrel minimize the androgenic side effects but increase the risks of blood clots and are thus not the first line.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rott H | title = Thrombotic risks of oral contraceptives | journal = Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 235–40 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22729096 | doi = 10.1097/GCO.0b013e328355871d | s2cid = 23938634 }} The perfect use first-year failure rate of injectable progestin is 0.2%; the typical use first failure rate is 6%.

File:Plaquettes de pilule.jpg|alt=birth control pill packages|Three varieties of birth control pills in calendar-oriented packaging

File:Birth Control Pills.png|Birth control pills

File:BirthControlPatch.JPG|alt=a contraceptive patch|A transdermal contraceptive patch

File:NuvaRing in hand.jpg|alt=a vaginal ring|A NuvaRing vaginal ring

Barrier contraceptives are devices that attempt to prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus. They include male condoms, female condoms, cervical caps, diaphragms, and contraceptive sponges with spermicide.{{cite book| vauthors = Neinstein L |title=Adolescent health care : a practical guide|year=2008|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-9256-1|page=624|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIzo5uo3XIQC&pg=PA624|edition=5th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617091640/https://books.google.com/books?id=XIzo5uo3XIQC&pg=PA624|archive-date=June 17, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

Globally, condoms are the most common method of birth control.{{cite book| vauthors = Chaudhuri SK | chapter = Barrier Contraceptives |title=Practice Of Fertility Control: A Comprehensive Manual|year=2007|publisher=Elsevier India|isbn=978-81-312-1150-2|page=88| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzanxKlcU74C&pg=PA88|edition=7th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430204739/https://books.google.com/books?id=pzanxKlcU74C&pg=PA88|archive-date=April 30, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Male condoms are put on a man's erect penis and physically block ejaculated sperm from entering the body of a sexual partner. Modern condoms are most often made from latex, but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane, or lamb's intestine.{{cite book| vauthors = Hamilton R |title=Pharmacology for nursing care|publisher=Elsevier/Saunders|location=St. Louis, MO|isbn=978-1-4377-3582-6|page=799|year=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4SwO2dHcAIC&pg=PA799|edition=8th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603075248/https://books.google.com/books?id=_4SwO2dHcAIC&pg=PA799|archive-date=June 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Female condoms are also available, most often made of nitrile, latex or polyurethane.{{cite book|title=Facts for life|year=2010|publisher=United Nations Children's Fund|location=New York|isbn=978-92-806-4466-1|page=141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAFgWda-2NMC&pg=PA141|edition=4th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513045129/https://books.google.com/books?id=GAFgWda-2NMC&pg=PA141|archive-date=May 13, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, and have few adverse effects.{{cite book| vauthors = Pray WS |title=Nonprescription product therapeutics|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-3498-1|page=414|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU1sMK1djVAC&pg=PA414|edition=2nd|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430062155/https://books.google.com/books?id=XU1sMK1djVAC&pg=PA414|archive-date=April 30, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Making condoms available to teenagers does not appear to affect the age of onset of sexual activity or its frequency.{{cite journal | title = Condom Use by Adolescents | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 132 | issue = 5 | pages = 973–981 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 28448257 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2013-2821 | doi-access = free | author1 = Committee on Adolescence }} In Japan, about 80% of couples who are using birth control use condoms, while in Germany this number is about 25%,{{cite book| vauthors = Eberhard N |title=Andrology Male Reproductive Health and Dysfunction|year=2010|publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg|location=[S.l.]|isbn=978-3-540-78355-8|page=563|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mEgckDNkonUC&pg=PA563|edition=3rd|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510175547/https://books.google.com/books?id=mEgckDNkonUC&pg=PA563|archive-date=May 10, 2016|df=mdy-all}} and in the United States it is 18%.{{cite book| vauthors = Barbieri JF |title=Yen and Jaffe's reproductive endocrinology : physiology, pathophysiology, and clinical management|year=2009|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-4160-4907-4|page=873|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NudwnhxY8kYC&pg=PA873|edition=6th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518002841/https://books.google.com/books?id=NudwnhxY8kYC&pg=PA873|archive-date=May 18, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

Male condoms and the diaphragm with spermicide have typical use first-year failure rates of 18% and 12%, respectively. With perfect use condoms are more effective with a 2% first-year failure rate versus a 6% first-year rate with the diaphragm. Condoms have the additional benefit of helping to prevent the spread of some sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS, however, condoms made from animal intestines do not.{{Cite web|url=https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/healthlinkbc-files/preventing-sti|title=Preventing Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)|date=February 2017|website=British Columbia Health Link|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-date=July 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727010034/https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/healthlinkbc-files/preventing-sti|url-status=dead}}

Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with a spermicide. Like diaphragms, they are inserted vaginally before intercourse and must be placed over the cervix to be effective. Typical failure rates during the first year depend on whether or not a woman has previously given birth, being 24% in those who have and 12% in those who have not. The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward. Allergic reactions{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuyoh MA, Toroitich-Ruto C, Grimes DA, Schulz KF, Gallo MF | title = Sponge versus diaphragm for contraception: a Cochrane review | journal = Contraception | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–8 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12521652 | doi = 10.1016/s0010-7824(02)00434-1 }} and more severe adverse effects such as toxic shock syndrome have been reported.{{cite book |title=Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use|year=2009|publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-156388-8|page=88|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pouTfH33wF8C&pg=PA88|edition=4th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515194650/https://books.google.com/books?id=pouTfH33wF8C&pg=PA88|archive-date=May 15, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

File:Kondom.jpg|A rolled-up male condom.

File:Condom unrolled durex.jpg|alt=an unrolled condom|An unrolled male latex condom

File:Préservatif féminin.jpg|alt=a female condom|A polyurethane female condom

File:Contraceptive diaphragm.jpg|alt=a diaphragm|A diaphragm vaginal-cervical barrier, in its case with a quarter U.S. coin.

File:Éponge spermicide.jpg|alt=a contraceptive sponge|A contraceptive sponge set inside its open package.

File:Tête de stérilet.jpg

The current intrauterine devices (IUD) are small devices, often T-shaped, containing either copper or levonorgestrel, which are inserted into the uterus. They are one form of long-acting reversible contraception which is the most effective type of reversible birth control.{{cite journal | vauthors = Winner B, Peipert JF, Zhao Q, Buckel C, Madden T, Allsworth JE, Secura GM | title = Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 366 | issue = 21 | pages = 1998–2007 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22621627 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1110855 | s2cid = 16812353 | url = https://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/open_access_pubs/2773 | df = mdy-all | doi-access = free }} Failure rates with the copper IUD is about 0.8% while the levonorgestrel IUD has a failure rates of 0.2% in the first year of use.{{cite book | vauthors = Hanson SJ, Burke AE | chapter = Fertility Control: Contraception, Sterilization, and Abortion | veditors = Hurt KJ, Guile MW, Bienstock JL, Fox HE, Wallach EE | title = The Johns Hopkins manual of gynecology and obstetrics|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60547-433-5|page=232|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pg=PR232|edition=4th|date=March 28, 2012 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512081611/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pg=PR232|archive-date=May 12, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Among types of birth control, they, along with birth control implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users.{{cite journal | author = Committee on Adolescent Health Care Long-Acting Reversible Contraception Working Group, The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists | title = Committee opinion no. 539: adolescents and long-acting reversible contraception: implants and Intrauterine devices | journal = Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 120 | issue = 4 | pages = 983–8 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22996129 | doi = 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182723b7d | s2cid = 35516759 | doi-access = free }} {{As of|2007}}, IUDs are the most widely used form of reversible contraception, with more than 180 million users worldwide.{{cite book| vauthors = Speroff L, Darney PD |title=A clinical guide for contraception|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60831-610-6|pages=242–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5XJtYkiJ0YC&pg=PT425|edition=5th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506220517/https://books.google.com/books?id=f5XJtYkiJ0YC&pg=PT425|archive-date=May 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

Evidence supports effectiveness and safety in adolescents and those who have and have not previously had children.{{cite journal | vauthors = Black K, Lotke P, Buhling KJ, Zite NB | title = A review of barriers and myths preventing the more widespread use of intrauterine contraception in nulliparous women | journal = The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 340–50 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22834648 | pmc = 4950459 | doi = 10.3109/13625187.2012.700744 }} IUDs do not affect breastfeeding and can be inserted immediately after delivery.{{cite book| vauthors = Gabbe S |title=Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4557-3395-8|page=527|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3mJpT2PkEUC&pg=PA527|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515213803/https://books.google.com/books?id=x3mJpT2PkEUC&pg=PA527|archive-date=May 15, 2016|df=mdy-all}} They may also be used immediately after an abortion.{{cite journal | vauthors = Steenland MW, Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Kapp N | title = Intrauterine contraceptive insertion postabortion: a systematic review | journal = Contraception | volume = 84 | issue = 5 | pages = 447–64 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 22018119 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2011.03.007 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1258857 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Roe AH, Bartz D | title = Society of Family Planning clinical recommendations: contraception after surgical abortion | journal = Contraception | volume = 99 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–9 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30195718 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2018.08.016 | url = https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(18)30425-6/abstract | doi-access = free }} Once removed, even after long term use, fertility returns to normal immediately.{{cite book| veditors = Falcone T, Hurd WW |title=Clinical reproductive medicine and surgery|year=2007|publisher=Mosby|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-323-03309-1|page=409|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOPtaEIKvcIC&pg=PA409|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617031849/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOPtaEIKvcIC&pg=PA409|archive-date=June 17, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

While copper IUDs may increase menstrual bleeding and result in more painful cramps,{{Cite book | vauthors = Grimes DA | chapter = Intrauterine Devices (IUDs) | veditors = Hatcher RA, Nelson TJ, Guest F, Kowal D | title = Contraceptive Technology | edition = 19th |year = 2007 }} hormonal IUDs may reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether. Cramping can be treated with painkillers like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Other potential complications include expulsion (2–5%) and rarely perforation of the uterus (less than 0.7%).{{cite journal | vauthors = Marnach ML, Long ME, Casey PM | title = Current issues in contraception | journal = Mayo Clinic Proceedings | volume = 88 | issue = 3 | pages = 295–9 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 23489454 | doi = 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.01.007 | doi-access = free }} A previous model of the intrauterine device (the Dalkon shield) was associated with an increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease; however, the risk is not affected with current models in those without sexually transmitted infections around the time of insertion.{{cite web|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/10/4/gpr100419.html|title=Popularity Disparity: Attitudes About the IUD in Europe and the United States|publisher=Guttmacher Policy Review|date=2007|access-date=April 27, 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307124351/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/10/4/gpr100419.html|archive-date=March 7, 2010|df=mdy-all}} IUDs appear to decrease the risk of ovarian cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cramer DW | title = The epidemiology of endometrial and ovarian cancer | journal = Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–12 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22244658 | pmc = 3259524 | doi = 10.1016/j.hoc.2011.10.009 }}

Two broad categories exist, surgical and non-surgical.

Surgical sterilization is available in the form of tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men. Tubal ligation decreases the risk of ovarian cancer. Short term complications are twenty times less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams CE, Wald M | title = Risks and complications of vasectomy | journal = The Urologic Clinics of North America | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–6 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19643235 | doi = 10.1016/j.ucl.2009.05.009 }} After a vasectomy, there may be swelling and pain of the scrotum which usually resolves in one or two weeks.{{cite book | vauthors = Hillard PA |title=The 5-minute obstetrics and gynecology consult |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |page=265 |isbn=978-0-7817-6942-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOoFIQOdIhkC&pg=PA265 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611045006/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOoFIQOdIhkC&pg=PA265 |archive-date=June 11, 2016 |df=mdy-all }} Chronic scrotal pain associated with negative impact on quality of life occurs after vasectomy in about 1–2% of men.{{Cite web|title=Vasectomy Guideline – American Urological Association|url=https://www.auanet.org/guidelines/guidelines/vasectomy-guideline|access-date=2021-10-26|website=www.auanet.org}} With tubal ligation, complications occur in 1 to 2 percent of procedures with serious complications usually due to the anesthesia.{{cite book | vauthors = Hillard PA |title=The 5-minute obstetrics and gynecology consult |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |page=549 |isbn=978-0-7817-6942-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOoFIQOdIhkC&pg=PA549 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505132817/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOoFIQOdIhkC&pg=PA549 |archive-date=May 5, 2016 |df=mdy-all }} Neither method offers protection from sexually transmitted infections. Sometimes, salpingectomy is also used for sterilization in women.{{Cite book|title=Goldman-Cecil medicine|publisher=Elsevier |editor=Lee Goldman |editor2=Andrew I. Schafer|year=2020|isbn=978-0-323-53266-2|edition=26th|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=1568–1575|chapter=Contraception|oclc=1118693594}}

Non-surgical sterilization methods have also been explored.

FahimFahim, M. S., et al. "Heat in male contraception (hot water 60°C, infrared, microwave, and ultrasound)." Contraception 11.5 (1975): 549–562.Fahim, M. S., et al. "Ultrasound as a new method of male contraception." Fertility and sterility 28.8 (1977): 823–831.Fahim, M. S., Z. Fahim, and F. Azzazi. "Effect of ultrasound on testicular electrolytes (sodium and potassium)." Archives of andrology 1.2 (1978): 179–184. et al. found that heat exposure, especially high-intensity ultrasound, was effective either for temporary or permanent contraception depending on the dose, e.g. selective destruction of germ cells and Sertoli cells without affecting Leydig cells or testosterone levels. Chemical, e.g. drug-based methods are also available, e.g. orally-administered LonidamineLonidamine analogues for fertility management, WO2011005759A3

WIPO (PCT), Ingrid Gunda GeorgeJoseph S. TashRamappa ChakrsaliSudhakar R. JakkarajJames P. Calvet for temporary, or permanent (depending on the dose) fertility management.

BorisUnited States Patent US3934015A, Oral male antifertility method and compositions provides a method for chemically inducing either temporary or non-reversible sterility, depending on the dose, "Permanent sterility in human males can be obtained by a single oral dosage containing from about 18 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg".

The permanence of this decision may cause regret in some men and women. Of women who have undergone tubal ligation after the age of 30, about 6% regret their decision, as compared with 20–24% of women who received sterilization within one year of delivery and before turning 30, and 6% in nulliparous women sterilized before the age of 30.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hillis SD, Marchbanks PA, Tylor LR, Peterson HB | title = Poststerilization regret: findings from the United States Collaborative Review of Sterilization | journal = Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 93 | issue = 6 | pages = 889–895 | date = June 1999 | pmid = 10362150 | doi = 10.1016/s0029-7844(98)00539-0 | s2cid = 38389864 }} By contrast, less than 5% of men are likely to regret sterilization. Men who are more likely to regret sterilization are younger, have young or no children, or have an unstable marriage.{{cite book| vauthors = Hatcher R |title=Contraceptive technology|year=2008|publisher=Ardent Media|location=New York|isbn=978-1-59708-001-9|page=390|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=txh0LpjjhkoC&pg=PA390|edition=19th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506181510/https://books.google.com/books?id=txh0LpjjhkoC&pg=PA390|archive-date=May 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}} In a survey of biological parents, 9% stated they would not have had children if they were able to do it over again.{{cite book| vauthors = Moore DS |title=The basic practice of statistics|year=2010|publisher=Freeman|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4292-2426-0|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOMQKI8zj_EC&pg=PR25|edition=5th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427122639/https://books.google.com/books?id=JOMQKI8zj_EC&pg=PR25|archive-date=April 27, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure, it is possible to attempt a tubal reversal to reconnect the fallopian tubes or a vasectomy reversal to reconnect the vasa deferentia. In women, the desire for a reversal is often associated with a change in spouse. Pregnancy success rates after tubal reversal are between 31 and 88 percent, with complications including an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Deffieux X, Morin Surroca M, Faivre E, Pages F, Fernandez H, Gervaise A | title = Tubal anastomosis after tubal sterilization: a review | journal = Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics | volume = 283 | issue = 5 | pages = 1149–58 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21331539 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-011-1858-1 | s2cid = 28359350 }} The number of males who request reversal is between 2 and 6 percent.{{cite journal | vauthors = Shridharani A, Sandlow JI | title = Vasectomy reversal versus IVF with sperm retrieval: which is better? | journal = Current Opinion in Urology | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 503–9 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20852426 | doi = 10.1097/MOU.0b013e32833f1b35 | s2cid = 42105503 }} Rates of success in fathering another child after reversal are between 38 and 84 percent; with success being lower the longer the period between the vasectomy and the reversal. Sperm extraction followed by in vitro fertilization may also be an option in men.{{cite journal | vauthors = Nagler HM, Jung H | title = Factors predicting successful microsurgical vasectomy reversal | journal = The Urologic Clinics of North America | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 383–90 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19643240 | doi = 10.1016/j.ucl.2009.05.010 }}

Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of intercourse to prevent the introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present. If used perfectly the first-year failure rate may be around 3.4%; however, if used poorly first-year failure rates may approach 85%.{{cite book| vauthors = Lawrence R |title= Breastfeeding: a guide for the medical professional|year=2010|publisher=Saunders|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-4377-0788-5|page=673|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhQ2zHnKEKwC&pg=PA673|edition=7th|df=mdy-all}}

File:Geburtenkontrollkette (cropped).jpg tool, used for estimating fertility based on days since last menstruation|alt=a birth control chain calendar necklace]]

Fertility awareness methods involve determining the most fertile days of the menstrual cycle and avoiding unprotected intercourse. Techniques for determining fertility include monitoring basal body temperature, cervical secretions, or the day of the cycle.{{cite journal | vauthors = Grimes DA, Gallo MF, Grigorieva V, Nanda K, Schulz KF | title = Fertility awareness-based methods for contraception | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 4 | pages = CD004860 | date = October 2004 | volume = 2012 | pmid = 15495128 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004860.pub2 | pmc = 8855505 }} They have typical first-year failure rates of 24%; perfect use first-year failure rates depend on which method is used and range from 0.4% to 5%. The evidence on which these estimates are based, however, is poor as the majority of people in trials stop their use early. Globally, they are used by about 3.6% of couples. If based on basal body temperature and another primary sign, the method is called symptothermal. First-year failure rates of 20% overall and 0.4% for perfect use have been reported in clinical studies of the symptothermal method.{{cite book| vauthors = Jennings VH, Burke AE |date=November 1, 2011|chapter=Fertility awareness-based methods| veditors = Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates Jr W, Kowal D, Policar MS |title=Contraceptive technology|edition=20th revised|location=New York|publisher=Ardent Media|pages=417–34|isbn=978-1-59708-004-0|issn=0091-9721|oclc=781956734}} Many fertility tracking apps are available, as of 2016, but they are more commonly designed to assist those trying to get pregnant rather than prevent pregnancy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mangone ER, Lebrun V, Muessig KE | title = Mobile Phone Apps for the Prevention of Unintended Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Content Analysis | journal = JMIR mHealth and uHealth | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = e6 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26787311 | pmc = 4738182 | doi = 10.2196/mhealth.4846 | doi-access = free }}

The withdrawal method (also known as coitus interruptus) is the practice of ending intercourse ("pulling out") before ejaculation.{{cite book |title=Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use|year=2009|publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-156388-8|pages=91–100|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|edition=4th|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709230021/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|archive-date=July 9, 2012|df=mdy-all}} The main risk of the withdrawal method is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly or on time. First-year failure rates vary from 4% with perfect usage to 22% with typical usage. It is not considered birth control by some medical professionals.

There is little data regarding the sperm content of pre-ejaculatory fluid.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones RK, Fennell J, Higgins JA, Blanchard K | title = Better than nothing or savvy risk-reduction practice? The importance of withdrawal | journal = Contraception | volume = 79 | issue = 6 | pages = 407–10 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19442773 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2008.12.008 }} While some tentative research did not find sperm, one trial found sperm present in 10 out of 27 volunteers.{{cite journal | vauthors = Killick SR, Leary C, Trussell J, Guthrie KA | title = Sperm content of pre-ejaculatory fluid | journal = Human Fertility | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–52 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21155689 | pmc = 3564677 | doi = 10.3109/14647273.2010.520798 }} The withdrawal method is used as birth control by about 3% of couples.{{cite journal | vauthors = Freundl G, Sivin I, Batár I | title = State-of-the-art of non-hormonal methods of contraception: IV. Natural family planning | journal = The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–23 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20141492 | doi = 10.3109/13625180903545302 | s2cid = 207523506 }}

Sexual abstinence may be used as a form of birth control, meaning either not engaging in any type of sexual activity, or specifically not engaging in vaginal intercourse, while engaging in other forms of non-vaginal sex.{{cite web|title=Abstinence|work=Planned Parenthood|year=2009|url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/abstinence-4215.htm|access-date=September 9, 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910053822/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/abstinence-4215.htm|archive-date=September 10, 2009|df=mdy-all}}{{cite book | vauthors = Murthy AS, Harwood B |title=Primary Care in Obstetrics and Gynecology |chapter=Contraception Update |publisher=Springer |edition=2nd |year=2007 |location=New York |pages=241–264|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-32328-2_12 |isbn=978-0-387-32327-5}} Complete sexual abstinence is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy.{{cite book| vauthors = Alters S, Schiff W |title=Essential Concepts for Healthy Living|date=Oct 5, 2009|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=978-0-7637-5641-3|page=116|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lc-YBRQkldAC|access-date=30 December 2017}}{{cite book| vauthors = Greenberg JS, Bruess CE, Oswalt SB |title=Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality|year= 2016|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=978-1-4496-9801-0|page=191|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iarCwAAQBAJ|access-date=30 December 2017}} However, among those who take a pledge to abstain from premarital sex, as many as 88% who engage in sex, do so prior to marriage.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fortenberry JD | title = The limits of abstinence-only in preventing sexually transmitted infections | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 269–70 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15780781 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.02.001 }} The choice to abstain from sex cannot protect against pregnancy as a result of rape, and public health efforts emphasizing abstinence to reduce unwanted pregnancy may have limited effectiveness, especially in developing countries and among disadvantaged groups.{{cite journal | title = Nonconsensual Sex Undermines Sexual Health | journal = Network | year = 2005 | volume = 23 | url = http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v23_4/nt2341.htm | vauthors = Best K | issue = 4 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090218142348/http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v23_4/nt2341.htm | archive-date = February 18, 2009 | df = mdy-all }}{{cite book| vauthors = Francis L |title=The Oxford Handbook of Reproductive Ethics|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-998187-8|page=329|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TS6hDQAAQBAJ|access-date=30 December 2017}}

Deliberate non-penetrative sex without vaginal sex or deliberate oral sex without vaginal sex are also sometimes considered birth control. While this generally avoids pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with intercrural sex and other forms of penis-near-vagina sex (genital rubbing, and the penis exiting from anal intercourse) where sperm can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can travel along the vagina's lubricating fluids.{{cite book| vauthors = Thomas RM |title=Sex and the American teenager seeing through the myths and confronting the issues|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Education|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-1-60709-018-2|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gM9EFgsJHyoC&pg=PA81}}{{cite book| vauthors = Edlin G |title=Health & Wellness|year=2012|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-1-4496-3647-0|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csGk6j5rlN0C&pg=PA213}}

Abstinence-only sex education does not reduce teenage pregnancy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Santelli JS, Kantor LM, Grilo SA, Speizer IS, Lindberg LD, Heitel J, Schalet AT, Lyon ME, Mason-Jones AJ, McGovern T, Heck CJ, Rogers J, Ott MA | display-authors = 6 | title = Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage: An Updated Review of U.S. Policies and Programs and Their Impact | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 273–280 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28842065 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.05.031 | doi-access = free | hdl = 1805/15683 | hdl-access = free }} Teen pregnancy rates and STI rates are generally the same or higher in states where students are given abstinence-only education, as compared with comprehensive sex education. Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as a primary method have backup methods available (such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills).{{cite book| vauthors = Kowal D |year=2007|chapter=Abstinence and the Range of Sexual Expression| veditors = Hatcher RA |title=Contraceptive Technology|edition=19th rev.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contraceptivetec00hatc/page/81 81–86]|location=New York|publisher=Ardent Media|isbn=978-0-9664902-0-6|display-editors=etal|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/contraceptivetec00hatc/page/81}}

{{see also|Breastfeeding and fertility}}

The lactational amenorrhea method involves the use of a woman's natural postpartum infertility which occurs after delivery and may be extended by breastfeeding.{{cite book | vauthors = Blackburn ST |title=Maternal, fetal, & neonatal physiology: a clinical perspective|year=2007|publisher=Saunders Elsevier|location=St. Louis, MO|isbn=978-1-4160-2944-1|page=157|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2y6zOSQcn14C&pg=PA157|edition=3rd|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512050446/https://books.google.com/books?id=2y6zOSQcn14C&pg=PA157|archive-date=May 12, 2016|df=mdy-all}} For a postpartum woman to be infertile (protected from pregnancy), their periods have usually not yet returned (not menstruating), they are exclusively breastfeeding the infant, and the baby is younger than six months.{{cite journal | vauthors = Blenning CE, Paladine H | title = An approach to the postpartum office visit | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 72 | issue = 12 | pages = 2491–2496 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16370405 }} If breastfeeding is the infant's only source of nutrition and the baby is less than 6 months old, 93–99% of women are estimated to have protection from becoming pregnant in the first six months (0.75–7.5% failure rate).{{cite web|title=WHO 10 facts on breastfeeding|work=World Health Organization|date=April 2005|url=https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/breastfeeding/facts/en/index2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623231136/http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/breastfeeding/facts/en/index2.html|archive-date=June 23, 2013|df=mdy-all}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Van der Wijden C, Manion C | title = Lactational amenorrhoea method for family planning | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2015 | issue = 10 | pages = CD001329 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26457821 | pmc = 6823189 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD001329.pub2 }} The failure rate increases to 4–7% at one year and 13% at two years.{{cite book| vauthors = Fritz M |title=Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4511-4847-3|pages=1007–08|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZLubBxJEwEC&pg=PA1007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603173728/https://books.google.com/books?id=KZLubBxJEwEC&pg=PA1007|archive-date=June 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, the use of a pacifier, and feeding solids all increase the chances of becoming pregnant while breastfeeding.{{cite book| vauthors = Swisher J, Lauwers A |title=Counseling the nursing mother a lactation consultant's guide|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|location=Sudbury, MA|isbn=978-1-4496-1948-0|pages=465–66|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2X0_Takcr_wC&pg=PA465|edition=5th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616223833/https://books.google.com/books?id=2X0_Takcr_wC&pg=PA465|archive-date=June 16, 2016|df=mdy-all|date=2010-10-25}} In those who are exclusively breastfeeding, about 10% begin having periods before three months and 20% before six months. In those who are not breastfeeding, fertility may return as early as four weeks after delivery.

File:Emergency contraceptive (cropped).jpg pills|alt=emergency contraceptive pills]]

Emergency contraceptive methods are medications (sometimes misleadingly referred to as "morning-after pills"){{cite web|author1=Office of Population Research|author2=Association of Reproductive Health Professionals|date=July 31, 2013|title=What is the difference between emergency contraception, the 'morning after pill', and the 'day after pill'?|location=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University|url=http://ec.princeton.edu/questions/morningafter.html|access-date=September 7, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923062617/http://ec.princeton.edu/questions/morningafter.html|archive-date=September 23, 2013|df=mdy-all}} or devices used after unprotected sexual intercourse with the hope of preventing pregnancy. Emergency contraceptives are often given to victims of rape. They work primarily by preventing ovulation or fertilization.{{cite journal | vauthors = Leung VW, Levine M, Soon JA | title = Mechanisms of action of hormonal emergency contraceptives | journal = Pharmacotherapy | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 158–68 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20099990 | doi = 10.1592/phco.30.2.158 | quote = The evidence strongly supports disruption of ovulation as a mechanism of action. The data suggest that emergency contraceptives are unlikely to act by interfering with implantation | s2cid = 41337748 }} They are unlikely to affect implantation, but this has not been completely excluded. Several options exist, including high dose birth control pills, levonorgestrel, mifepristone, ulipristal and IUDs.{{cite journal | vauthors = Shen J, Che Y, Showell E, Chen K, Cheng L | title = Interventions for emergency contraception | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 1 | pages = CD001324 | date = January 2019 | issue = 1 | pmid = 30661244 | pmc = 7055045 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD001324.pub6 | collaboration = Cochrane Fertility Regulation Group }} All methods have minimal side effects. Providing emergency contraceptive pills to women in advance of sexual activity does not affect rates of sexually transmitted infections, condom use, pregnancy rates, or sexual risk-taking behavior.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kripke C | title = Advance provision for emergency oral contraception | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 76 | issue = 5 | pages = 654 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17894132 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Shrader SP, Hall LN, Ragucci KR, Rafie S | title = Updates in hormonal emergency contraception | journal = Pharmacotherapy | volume = 31 | issue = 9 | pages = 887–95 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21923590 | doi = 10.1592/phco.31.9.887 | s2cid = 33900390 }} In a UK study, when a three-month "bridge" supply of the progestogen-only pill was provided by a pharmacist along with emergency contraception after sexual activity, this intervention was shown to increase the likelihood that the person would begin to use an effective method of long-term contraception.{{Cite journal |last=Beeston |first=Amelia |date=2022-01-27 |title=Pharmacists gave the POP with emergency contraception |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/giving-pop-with-emergency-contraception-increased-use-long-term-contraception/ |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=NIHR Evidence |doi=10.3310/alert_48882 |language=en-GB}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Sharon T. |last2=Glasier |first2=Anna |last3=McDaid |first3=Lisa |last4=Radley |first4=Andrew |last5=Patterson |first5=Susan |last6=Baraitser |first6=Paula |last7=Stephenson |first7=Judith |last8=Gilson |first8=Richard |last9=Battison |first9=Claire |last10=Cowle |first10=Kathleen |last11=Vadiveloo |first11=Thenmalar |last12=Johnstone |first12=Anne |last13=Morelli |first13=Alessandra |last14=Goulao |first14=Beatriz |last15=Forrest |first15=Mark |date=2021-05-05 |title=Provision of the progestogen-only pill by community pharmacies as bridging contraception for women receiving emergency contraception: the Bridge-it RCT |url=https://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/hta/hta25270/ |journal=Health Technology Assessment |language=EN |volume=25 |issue=27 |pages=1–92 |doi=10.3310/hta25270 |issn=2046-4924|hdl=2164/16696 |hdl-access=free }}

Levonorgestrel pills, when used within 3 days, decrease the chance of pregnancy after a single episode of unprotected sex or condom failure by 70% (resulting in a pregnancy rate of 2.2%). Ulipristal, when used within 5 days, decreases the chance of pregnancy by about 85% (pregnancy rate 1.4%) and is more effective than levonorgestrel.{{cite journal | vauthors = Richardson AR, Maltz FN | title = Ulipristal acetate: review of the efficacy and safety of a newly approved agent for emergency contraception | journal = Clinical Therapeutics | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–36 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22154199 | doi = 10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.11.012 }} Mifepristone is also more effective than levonorgestrel, while copper IUDs are the most effective method. IUDs can be inserted up to five days after intercourse and prevent about 99% of pregnancies after an episode of unprotected sex (pregnancy rate of 0.1 to 0.2%).{{cite web|title=Update on Emergency Contraception|url=http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Clinical-Proceedings/EC/Effectiveness|publisher=Association of Reproductive Health Professionals|access-date=May 20, 2013|date=March 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511124153/http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Clinical-Proceedings/EC/Effectiveness|archive-date=May 11, 2013|df=mdy-all}} This makes them the most effective form of emergency contraceptive.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cleland K, Zhu H, Goldstuck N, Cheng L, Trussell J | title = The efficacy of intrauterine devices for emergency contraception: a systematic review of 35 years of experience | journal = Human Reproduction | volume = 27 | issue = 7 | pages = 1994–2000 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22570193 | pmc = 3619968 | doi = 10.1093/humrep/des140 }} In those who are overweight or obese, levonorgestrel is less effective and an IUD or ulipristal is recommended.{{cite journal | vauthors = Glasier A, Cameron ST, Blithe D, Scherrer B, Mathe H, Levy D, Gainer E, Ulmann A | display-authors = 6 | title = Can we identify women at risk of pregnancy despite using emergency contraception? Data from randomized trials of ulipristal acetate and levonorgestrel | journal = Contraception | volume = 84 | issue = 4 | pages = 363–7 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21920190 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2011.02.009 }}

Dual protection is the use of methods that prevent both sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy.{{cite journal | title = Dual protection against unwanted pregnancy and HIV / STDs | journal = Sexual Health Exchange | issue = 3 | pages = 8 | year = 1998 | pmid = 12294688 }} This can be with condoms either alone or along with another birth control method or by the avoidance of penetrative sex.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cates W, Steiner MJ | title = Dual protection against unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections: what is the best contraceptive approach? | journal = Sexually Transmitted Diseases | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 168–74 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11875378 | doi = 10.1097/00007435-200203000-00007 | s2cid = 42792667 | df = mdy-all | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal|publisher=International Planned Parenthood Federation|date=May 2000|title=Statement on Dual Protection against Unwanted Pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Infections, including HIV|journal=Terapevticheskii Arkhiv |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=135–140 |url=http://www.popline.org/node/172494|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410055528/http://www.popline.org/node/172494|archive-date=April 10, 2016|df=mdy-all | vauthors = Farber NA, Farber NA }}

If pregnancy is a high concern, using two methods at the same time is reasonable. For example, two forms of birth control are recommended in those taking the anti-acne drug isotretinoin or anti-epileptic drugs like carbamazepine, due to the high risk of birth defects if taken during pregnancy.{{cite book| vauthors = Gupta RC |title=Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGHRR32wz5MC|year= 2011|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-382032-7|page=105|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516180230/https://books.google.com/books?id=jGHRR32wz5MC|archive-date=May 16, 2016|df=mdy-all}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhakta J, Bainbridge J, Borgelt L | title = Teratogenic medications and concurrent contraceptive use in women of childbearing ability with epilepsy | journal = Epilepsy & Behavior | volume = 52 | issue = Pt A | pages = 212–7 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26460786 | doi = 10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.08.004 | s2cid = 6504198 }}

{{See also|Maternal health}}

File:Maternal mortality rate worldwide.jpg]]

File:Scatterplot of contraceptive use and TFR by region 2010.png by region.]]

Contraceptive use in developing countries is estimated to have decreased the number of maternal deaths by 40% (about 270,000 deaths prevented in 2008) and could prevent 70% of deaths if the full demand for birth control were met. These benefits are achieved by reducing the number of unplanned pregnancies that subsequently result in unsafe abortions and by preventing pregnancies in those at high risk.

Birth control also improves child survival in the developing world by lengthening the time between pregnancies. In this population, outcomes are worse when a mother gets pregnant within eighteen months of a previous delivery.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sholapurkar SL | title = Is there an ideal interpregnancy interval after a live birth, miscarriage or other adverse pregnancy outcomes? | journal = Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–10 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20143964 | doi = 10.3109/01443610903470288 | s2cid = 6346721 }} Delaying another pregnancy after a miscarriage, however, does not appear to alter risk and women are advised to attempt pregnancy in this situation whenever they are ready.

Teenage pregnancies, especially among younger teens, are at greater risk of adverse outcomes including early birth, low birth weight, and death of the infant. In 2012 in the United States 82% of pregnancies in those between the ages of 15 and 19 years old were unplanned. Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control are effective in decreasing pregnancy rates in this age group.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lavin C, Cox JE | title = Teen pregnancy prevention: current perspectives | journal = Current Opinion in Pediatrics | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 462–9 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22790099 | doi = 10.1097/MOP.0b013e3283555bee | s2cid = 12022584 }}

Birth control methods, especially hormonal methods, can also have undesirable side effects. The intensity of side effects can range from minor to debilitating and varies with individual experiences. These most commonly include changes in menstruation regularity and flow, nausea, breast tenderness, headaches, weight gain, and mood changes (specifically an increase in depression and anxiety).{{cite journal | vauthors = Robbins CL, Ott MA | title = Contraception options and provision to adolescents | journal = Minerva Pediatrica | volume = 69 | issue = 5 | pages = 403–414 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28643995 | doi = 10.23736/s0026-4946.17.05026-5 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 1805/14082 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Britton LE, Alspaugh A, Greene MZ, McLemore MR | title = CE: An Evidence-Based Update on Contraception | journal = The American Journal of Nursing | volume = 120 | issue = 2 | pages = 22–33 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31977414 | pmc = 7533104 | doi = 10.1097/01.NAJ.0000654304.29632.a7 | doi-access = free }} Additionally, hormonal contraception can contribute to bone mineral density loss, impaired glucose metabolism, increased risk of venous thromboembolism. Comprehensive sex education and transparent discussion of birth control side effects and contraindications between healthcare provider and patient is imperative.

{{See also|Family economics|Cost of raising a child}}

File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg

In the developing world, birth control increases economic growth due to there being fewer dependent children and thus more women participating in or increased contribution to the workforce – as they are usually the primary caregiver for children. Women's earnings, assets, body mass index, and their children's schooling and body mass index all improve with greater access to birth control. Family planning, via the use of modern birth control, is one of the most cost-effective health interventions. For every dollar spent, the United Nations estimates that two to six dollars are saved. These cost savings are related to preventing unplanned pregnancies and decreasing the spread of sexually transmitted illnesses. While all methods are beneficial financially, the use of copper IUDs resulted in the greatest savings.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsui AO, McDonald-Mosley R, Burke AE | title = Family planning and the burden of unintended pregnancies | journal = Epidemiologic Reviews | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 152–74 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20570955 | pmc = 3115338 | doi = 10.1093/epirev/mxq012 }}

The total medical cost for a pregnancy, delivery, and care of a newborn in the United States is on average $21,000 for a vaginal delivery and $31,000 for a caesarean delivery as of 2012.{{cite news| vauthors = Rosenthal E |title=American Way of Birth, Costliest in the World|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/health/american-way-of-birth-costliest-in-the-world.html|newspaper=New York Times|date=June 30, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314223938/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/health/american-way-of-birth-costliest-in-the-world.html|archive-date=March 14, 2017|df=mdy-all}} In most other countries, the cost is less than half. For a child born in 2011, an average US family will spend $235,000 over 17 years to raise them.{{cite web|title = Expenditures on Children by Families, 2011|publisher = United States Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion|url = http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/ExpendituresonChildrenbyFamilies.htm|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080308082505/http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/ExpendituresonChildrenbyFamilies.htm|archive-date = March 8, 2008|df = mdy-all|access-date = August 29, 2012}}

{{Main|Prevalence of birth control}}

[[File:SOWM2010 modern contraception.svg|upright=1.6|thumb|alt=prevalence of modern birth control map|World map colored according to modern birth control use. Each shading level represents a range of six percentage points, with usage less than or equal to:

{{col-begin}}

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{{legend|#a50026|6%}}

{{legend|#d73027|12%}}

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{{legend|#fdae61|24%}}

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{{legend|#fee090|30%}}

{{legend|#ffffbf|36%}}

{{legend|#e0f3f8|48%}}

{{legend|#abd9e9|60%}}

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{{legend|#74add1|66%}}

{{legend|#4575b4|78%}}

{{legend|#313695|86%}}

{{legend|#b9b9b9|No data}}

{{col-end}}]]

File:Demand for family planning satisfied by modern methods, OWID.svg

Globally, as of 2009, approximately 60% of those who are married and able to have children use birth control. How frequently different methods are used varies widely between countries. The most common method in the developed world is condoms and oral contraceptives, while in Africa it is oral contraceptives and in Latin America and Asia it is sterilization.{{cite journal | vauthors = Darroch JE | title = Trends in contraceptive use | journal = Contraception | volume = 87 | issue = 3 | pages = 259–63 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 23040137 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.029 }} In the developing world overall, 35% of birth control is via female sterilization, 30% is via IUDs, 12% is via oral contraceptives, 11% is via condoms, and 4% is via male sterilization.

While less used in the developed countries than the developing world, the number of women using IUDs as of 2007 was more than 180 million. Avoiding sex when fertile is used by about 3.6% of women of childbearing age, with usage as high as 20% in areas of South America.{{cite book| vauthors = Darney L, Speroff PD |title=A clinical guide for contraception|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60831-610-6|page=315|edition=5th}} As of 2005, 12% of couples are using a male form of birth control (either condoms or a vasectomy) with higher rates in the developed world.{{cite journal |vauthors=Naz RK, Rowan S |date=June 2009 |title=Update on male contraception |journal=Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=265–9 |doi=10.1097/gco.0b013e328329247d |pmid=19469045 |s2cid=40507937}} Usage of male forms of birth control has decreased between 1985 and 2009. Contraceptive use among women in Sub-Saharan Africa has risen from about 5% in 1991 to about 30% in 2006.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cleland JG, Ndugwa RP, Zulu EM | title = Family planning in sub-Saharan Africa: progress or stagnation? | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 89 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–43 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21346925 | pmc = 3040375 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.10.077925 }}

As of 2012, 57% of women of childbearing age want to avoid pregnancy (867 of 1,520 million). About 222 million women, however, were not able to access birth control, 53 million of whom were in sub-Saharan Africa and 97 million of whom were in Asia.{{cite journal | vauthors = Darroch JE, Singh S | title = Trends in contraceptive need and use in developing countries in 2003, 2008, and 2012: an analysis of national surveys | journal = Lancet | volume = 381 | issue = 9879 | pages = 1756–62 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23683642 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60597-8 | s2cid = 8257042 }} This results in 54 million unplanned pregnancies and nearly 80,000 maternal deaths a year. Part of the reason that many women are without birth control is that many countries limit access due to religious or political reasons, while another contributor is poverty. Due to restrictive abortion laws in Sub-Saharan Africa, many women turn to unlicensed abortion providers for unintended pregnancy, resulting in about 2–4% obtaining unsafe abortions each year.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rasch V | title = Unsafe abortion and postabortion care – an overview | journal = Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica | volume = 90 | issue = 7 | pages = 692–700 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21542813 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0412.2011.01165.x | s2cid = 27737728 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|History of birth control}}

{{See also|Demographics of the world|Human population planning}}

File:Silphium.jpg depicting a stalk of silphium]]

The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BC and the Kahun Papyrus from 1850 BC have within them some of the earliest documented descriptions of birth control: the use of honey, acacia leaves and lint to be placed in the vagina to block sperm.{{cite book| vauthors = Cuomo A |chapter=Birth control| veditors = O'Reilly A |title=Encyclopedia of motherhood |year=2010 |publisher=Sage Publications|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|isbn=978-1-4129-6846-1|pages=121–26|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pcxqzal4bEYC&pg=PA124}}{{cite book| vauthors = Lipsey RG, Carlaw K, Bekar C |chapter=Historical Record on the Control of Family Size|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSrGTMtBv50C&pg=PA335|pages=335–40|title=Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-Term Economic Growth|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-928564-8}} Silphium, a species of giant fennel native to north Africa, may have been used as birth control in ancient Greece and the ancient Near East.{{cite book|author=unspecified|chapter=Herbal contraceptives and abortifacients| veditors = Bullough VL |title=Encyclopedia of birth control|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1-57607-181-6|pages=125–28|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuX-MGTZnJoC&pg=PA125}}{{cite book| vauthors = Totelin LM |date=2009|title=Hippocratic Recipes: Oral and Written Transmission of Pharmacological Knowledge in Fifth- and Fourth-Century Greece|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-TiIMgrLCgC&pg=PA159|location=Leiden, Netherlands; Boston|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-17154-1|pages=158–61}} Due to its desirability, by the first century AD, it had become so rare that it was worth more than its weight in silver and, by late antiquity, it was fully extinct. Most methods of birth control used in antiquity were probably ineffective.{{cite book| vauthors = Carrick PJ |date=2001|title=Medical Ethics in Ancient World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vcj1hq1nFWsC&pg=PA123|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=978-1-58901-861-7|pages=119–22}}

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle ({{circa}} 384–322 BC) recommended applying cedar oil to the womb before intercourse, a method which was probably only effective on occasion. A Hippocratic text On the Nature of Women recommended that a woman drink a copper salt dissolved in water, which it claimed would prevent pregnancy for a year. This method was not only ineffective but also dangerous, as the later medical writer Soranus of Ephesus ({{circa}} 98–138 AD) pointed out. Soranus attempted to list reliable methods of birth control based on rational principles. He rejected the use of superstition and amulets and instead prescribed mechanical methods such as vaginal plugs and pessaries using wool as a base covered in oils or other gummy substances. Many of Soranus's methods were probably also ineffective.

In medieval Europe, any effort to halt pregnancy was deemed immoral by the Catholic Church, although it is believed that women of the time still used some birth control measures, such as coitus interruptus and inserting lily root and rue into the vagina.{{cite book| vauthors = McTavish L |chapter=Contraception and birth control| veditors = Robin D | title = Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance : Italy, France, and England|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1-85109-772-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_m4x6/page/91 91–92]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ8mdTjxungC&pg=PA91|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_m4x6/page/91}} Women in the Middle Ages were also encouraged to tie weasel testicles around their thighs during sex to prevent pregnancy.{{Cite journal|title = A History of Birth Control Methods|date = January 2012|journal = Planned Parenthood Report|url = https://www.plannedparenthood.org/files/2613/9611/6275/History_of_BC_Methods.pdf|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151106071418/https://www.plannedparenthood.org/files/2613/9611/6275/History_of_BC_Methods.pdf|archive-date = November 6, 2015|df = mdy-all}} The oldest condoms discovered to date were recovered in the ruins of Dudley Castle in England, and are dated back to 1640. They were made of animal gut, and were most likely used to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections during the English Civil War. Casanova, living in 18th-century Italy, described the use of a lambskin covering to prevent pregnancy; however, condoms only became widely available in the 20th century.

File:Victorian Postcard - woman hitting stork with parasol.jpg postcard]]

The birth control movement developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hartmann B | title = Population control I: Birth of an ideology | journal = International Journal of Health Services | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 523–40 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9285280 | doi = 10.2190/bl3n-xajx-0yqb-vqbx | s2cid = 39035850 }} The Malthusian League, based on the ideas of Thomas Malthus, was established in 1877 in the United Kingdom to educate the public about the importance of family planning and to advocate for getting rid of penalties for promoting birth control.{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e1c6OjifgyYC&pg=PA221 |title=Review: A History of the Malthusian League 1877–1927 |journal=New Scientist | vauthors = Simms M | date= January 27, 1977 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505021719/https://books.google.com/books?id=e1c6OjifgyYC&pg=PA221&lpg=PA221 |archive-date=May 5, 2016 |df=mdy-all }} It was founded during the "Knowlton trial" of Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh, who were prosecuted for publishing on various methods of birth control.{{cite journal | vauthors = d'Arcy F | title = The Malthusian League and the resistance to birth control propaganda in late Victorian Britain | journal = Population Studies | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 429–48 | date = November 1977 | pmid = 11630505 | doi = 10.2307/2173367 | jstor = 2173367 }}

In the United States, Margaret Sanger and Otto Bobsein popularized the phrase "birth control" in 1914.{{Cite book| vauthors = Meyer JE | title = Any friend of the movement: networking for birth control, 1920–1940| publisher = Ohio State University Press| year = 2004| page = 184| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bdl78Y2eRcEC&pg=PA184| isbn = 978-0-8142-0954-7| url-status = live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140103122651/http://books.google.com/books?id=bdl78Y2eRcEC&pg=PA184| archive-date = January 3, 2014| df = mdy-all}}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Galvin R | title = Margaret Sanger's "Deeds of Terrible Virtue"| journal = National Endowment for the Humanities| url = http://www.neh.gov/humanities/1998/septemberoctober/feature/margaret-sangers-deeds-terrible-virtue| year = 1998| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131001164818/http://www.neh.gov/humanities/1998/septemberoctober/feature/margaret-sangers-deeds-terrible-virtue| archive-date = October 1, 2013| df = mdy-all| access-date = January 27, 2014}} Sanger primarily advocated for birth control on the idea that it would prevent women from seeking unsafe abortions, but during her lifetime, she began to campaign for it on the grounds that it would reduce mental and physical defects.{{cite book|vauthors = Rossi A |title=The Feminist Papers|date=1988|publisher=Northeastern University Press|location=Boston|isbn=978-1-55553-028-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/feministpapersfr00ross/page/523 523]|url=https://archive.org/details/feministpapersfr00ross/page/523}} She was mainly active in the United States but had gained an international reputation by the 1930s. At the time, under the Comstock Law, distribution of birth control information was illegal. She jumped bail in 1914 after her arrest for distributing birth control information and left the United States for the United Kingdom.{{cite book| vauthors = Pastorello K |title=The Progressives: Activism and Reform in American Society, 1893–1917|date=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-65112-4|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpMYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT65|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604052259/https://books.google.com/books?id=OpMYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT65|archive-date=June 4, 2016|df=mdy-all}} In the U.K., Sanger, influenced by Havelock Ellis, further developed her arguments for birth control. She believed women needed to enjoy sex without fearing a pregnancy. During her time abroad, Sanger also saw a more flexible diaphragm in a Dutch clinic, which she thought was a better form of contraceptive. Once Sanger returned to the United States, she established a short-lived birth-control clinic with the help of her sister, Ethel Bryne, based in the Brownville section of Brooklyn, New York{{Cite book|title = Birth Control| vauthors = Zorea A |publisher = Greenwood|year = 2012|isbn = 978-0-313-36254-5|location = Santa Barbara, CA|page = 43}} in 1916. It was shut down after eleven days and resulted in her arrest.{{cite book| vauthors = Baker JH |title=Margaret Sanger : a life of passion|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4299-6897-3|pages=115–17|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7pgCFIcH2cC&q=Mararet%20Sanger%20%3A%20a%20life%20of%20passion&pg=PA115|edition=First pbk.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504215433/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7pgCFIcH2cC&lpg=PA335&vq=115&dq=Mararet%20Sanger%20%3A%20a%20life%20of%20passion&pg=PA115|archive-date=May 4, 2016|df=mdy-all}} The publicity surrounding the arrest, trial, and appeal sparked birth control activism across the United States.{{cite book | vauthors= McCann CR |year=2010 |contribution=Women as Leaders in the Contraceptive Movement |title=Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook | veditors = O'Connor K |publisher=Sage |page=751 |oclc=568741234 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eH9NNHzY4lUC&q=173&pg=PA173 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610061703/https://books.google.com/books?id=eH9NNHzY4lUC&lpg=PA290&vq=173&pg=PA173 |archive-date=June 10, 2016 |df=mdy-all |isbn=978-1-84885-583-0 }} Besides her sister, Sanger was helped in the movement by her first husband, William Sanger, who distributed copies of "Family Limitation." Sanger's second husband, James Noah H. Slee, would later become involved in the movement, acting as its main funder.{{cite web|title=Biographical Sketch|url=https://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/aboutms/|website=About Sanger|publisher=New York University|access-date=24 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628004840/http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/aboutms/|archive-date=June 28, 2017|df=mdy-all}} Sanger also contributed to the funding of research into hormonal contraceptives in the 1950s.{{Citation|chapter=International Planned Parenthood Federation|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-93996-4_403 |title=International Encyclopedia of Civil Society |date=2010 | vauthors = Küenzl J, Schwabenland C, Elmaco J, Hale S, Levi E, Chen M, McInerney P, Commins S, Labigne A, List R, Hölz M, Anheier C, Schall-Emden J, Dalziel R, Yishai Y, Dekker P, Brown LD, Cumming LS, Biggers CS, Cumming LS, Martinez F, Ortmann A, Rousseliere D, Schmid E, Bode-Harlass C, Kaan C, Dibb R, Kraeger P, Levi E, Rehli F | display-authors = 6 |pages=891–892 |isbn=978-0-387-93994-0 }} She helped fund research by John Rock and biologist Gregory Pincus that resulted in the first hormonal contraceptive pill, later called Enovid.{{Cite web|title=The Bitter Pill: Harvard and the Dark History of Birth Control {{!}} Magazine {{!}} The Harvard Crimson|url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2017/9/28/the-bitter-pill/|access-date=2021-12-14|website=www.thecrimson.com}} The first human trials of the pill were done on patients in the Worcester State Psychiatric Hospital, after which clinical testing was done in Puerto Rico before Enovid was approved for use in the U.S.. The people participating in these trials were not fully informed of the medical implications of the pill and often had minimal to no other family planning options.{{Cite book| vauthors = Seaman B |title=The greatest experiment ever performed on women: exploding the estrogen myth|date=2003|publisher=Hyperion|isbn=978-0-7868-6853-7 |location=New York|oclc=52515011}}{{Cite web|title=Puerto Ricans recall being guinea pigs for 'magic pill'|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2004-04-11-0404110509-story.html|access-date=2021-12-14|website=Chicago Tribune|date=April 11, 2004 |language=en}} The newly approved birth control method was not made available to the participants after the trials, and contraceptives are still not widely accessible in Puerto Rico.

The increased use of birth control was seen by some as a form of social decay.{{Cite book|title=Historical dictionary of the Progressive Era, 1890–1920|date=1988|publisher=Greenwood Press| veditors = Buenker JD, Kantowicz ER |isbn=978-0313243097|location=New York|oclc=17807492|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000buen}} A decrease of fertility was seen as a negative. Throughout the Progressive Era (1890–1920), there was an increase of voluntary associations aiding the contraceptive movement. These organizations failed to enlist more than 100,000 women because the use of birth control was often compared to eugenics; however, women were seeking a community with like-minded women. The ideology that surrounded birth control started to gain traction during the Progressive Era due to voluntary associations establishing community. Birth control was unlike the Victorian Era because women wanted to manage their sexuality. The use of birth control was another form of self-interest women clung to. This was seen as women began to gravitate towards strong figures, like the Gibson Girl.{{Cite book|title=A fierce discontent: the rise and fall of the progressive movement in a | vauthors = McGerr M |date=2014|publisher=Free Press|isbn=9781439136034|oclc=893124592}}

The first permanent birth-control clinic was established in Britain in 1921 by Marie Stopes working with the Malthusian League.{{cite book | vauthors = Hall R |title=Passionate Crusader |url=https://archive.org/details/passionatecrusad00hall |url-access=registration |publisher=Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich |year=1977 |page=[https://archive.org/details/passionatecrusad00hall/page/186 186]|isbn=9780151712885 }} The clinic, run by midwives and supported by visiting doctors,{{cite book | vauthors = Stopes MC |title=The First Five Thousand |year=1925 |publisher=John Bale, Sons & Danielsson |location=London |oclc=12690936 |page=9}} offered women's birth-control advice and taught them the use of a cervical cap. Her clinic made contraception acceptable during the 1920s by presenting it in scientific terms. In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.{{Cite journal|title = Family Planning Timeline|date = 2015|journal = Congressional Digest}} In 1924 the Society for the Provision of Birth Control Clinics was founded to campaign for municipal clinics; this led to the opening of a second clinic in Greengate, Salford in 1926.{{cite news| vauthors = Herbert M |title=Salford's birth control pioneers|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2012/sep/05/manchester-salford|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=May 28, 2015|date=September 5, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528142128/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2012/sep/05/manchester-salford|archive-date=May 28, 2015|df=mdy-all}} Throughout the 1920s, Stopes and other feminist pioneers, including Dora Russell and Stella Browne, played a major role in breaking down taboos about sex. In April 1930 the Birth Control Conference assembled 700 delegates and was successful in bringing birth control and abortion into the political sphere – three months later, the Ministry of Health, in the United Kingdom, allowed local authorities to give birth-control advice in welfare centres.{{cite book| vauthors = Hall L |title=The life and times of Stella Browne: feminist and free spirit|location=London|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2011|page=173 |isbn=978-1-84885-583-0 }}

The National Birth Control Association was founded in Britain in 1931 and became the Family Planning Association eight years later. The Association amalgamated several British birth control-focused groups into 'a central organisation' for administering and overseeing birth control in Britain. The group incorporated the Birth Control Investigation Committee, a collective of physicians and scientists that was founded to investigate scientific and medical aspects of contraception with 'neutrality and impartiality'.BCIC Memorandum on Proposed Re-organisation [c. 1931]. Wellcome Library, Archives of the Eugenics Society (WL/SA/EUG/D/12/12.) Subsequently, the Association effected a series of 'pure' and 'applied' product and safety standards that manufacturers must meet to ensure their contraceptives could be prescribed as part of the Association's standard two-part-technique combining 'a rubber appliance to protect the mouth of the womb' with a 'chemical preparation capable of destroying... sperm'.{{cite book | vauthors = Wright H | title=Birth Control: Advice on Family Spacing and Healthy Sex Life |date=1935 |publisher=Cassell's Health Handbooks |location=London}} Between 1931 and 1959, the Association founded and funded a series of tests to assess chemical efficacy and safety and rubber quality.{{cite journal | vauthors = Szuhan N | title = Sex in the laboratory: the Family Planning Association and contraceptive science in Britain, 1929–1959 | journal = British Journal for the History of Science | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 487–510 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29952279 | doi = 10.1017/S0007087418000481 | s2cid = 49474491 }} These tests became the basis for the Association's Approved List of contraceptives, which was launched in 1937, and went on to become an annual publication that the expanding network of FPA clinics relied upon as a means to 'establish facts [about contraceptives] and to publish these facts as a basis on which a sound public and scientific opinion can be built'.Birth Control Investigation Committee Statement of Intent [c.1927], Wellcome Library, Archives of the Family Planning Association (WL/SA/FPA), WL/SA/FPA/A13/5.

In 1936, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled in United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries that medically prescribing contraception to save a person's life or well-being was not illegal under the Comstock Laws. Following this decision, the American Medical Association Committee on Contraception revoked its 1936 statement condemning birth control.{{Cite journal |last=Bailey |first=Martha J. |date=2013 |title=Fifty Years of Family Planning: New Evidence on the Long-Run Effects of Increasing Access to Contraception |journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity |volume=2013 |pages=341–409 |doi=10.1353/eca.2013.0001 |issn=0007-2303 |pmc=4203450 |pmid=25339778}} A national survey in 1937 showed 71 percent of the adult population supported the use of contraception.{{Cite web |title=Public Attitudes about Birth Control {{!}} Roper Center for Public Opinion Research |url=https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/public-attitudes-about-birth-control |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=ropercenter.cornell.edu}} By 1938, 374 birth control clinics were running in the United States despite their advertisement still being illegal.{{Cite news |date=1938-01-27 |title=BIRTH CONTROL AID AT PEAK IN NATION; 374 Clinics Now Operating, an Increase of 87 in a Year, League Reports |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1938/01/27/archives/birth-control-aid-at-peak-in-nation-374-clinics-now-operating-an-in.html |access-date=2022-06-21 |issn=0362-4331}} First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt publicly supported birth control and family planning.{{cite book| vauthors = Doan A |title=Opposition and Intimidation: The Abortion Wars and Strategies of Political Harassment|date=2007|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-06975-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oppositionintimi00doan/page/n64 53]–54|url=https://archive.org/details/oppositionintimi00doan|url-access=limited}} The restrictions on birth control in the Comstock laws were effectively rendered null and void by Supreme Court decisions Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)"Griswold v. Connecticut: Landmark Case Remembered", by Andi Reardon. NY Times, May 28, 1989 and Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972)."Catherine Roraback, 87, Influential Lawyer, Dies" by Dennis Hevesi Oct. 20, 2007. In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson started endorsing public funding for family planning services, and the Federal Government began subsidizing birth control services for low-income families.{{Cite journal|title = History of Birth Control in the United States|date = 2012|journal = Congressional Digest}} The Affordable Care Act, passed into law on March 23, 2010, under President Barack Obama, requires all plans in the Health Insurance Marketplace to cover contraceptive methods. These include barrier methods, hormonal methods, implanted devices, emergency contraceptives, and sterilization procedures.{{cite web|title = Birth control benefits and reproductive health care options in the Health Insurance Marketplace|url = https://www.healthcare.gov/coverage/birth-control-benefits/|website = HealthCare.gov|access-date = February 17, 2016|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160212171037/https://www.healthcare.gov/coverage/birth-control-benefits/|archive-date = February 12, 2016|df = mdy-all}}

In 1909, Richard Richter developed the first intrauterine device made from silkworm gut, which was further developed and marketed in Germany by Ernst Gräfenberg in the late 1920s.{{cite book| vauthors = Fritz MA, Speroff L |year=2011|chapter=Intrauterine contraception|title=Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility|edition=8th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|pages=1095–98|isbn=978-0-7817-7968-5|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZLubBxJEwEC&pg=RA1-PA1095|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116211235/https://books.google.com/books?id=KZLubBxJEwEC&pg=RA1-PA1095|archive-date=November 16, 2016|df=mdy-all}} In 1951, an Austrian-born American chemist, named Carl Djerassi at Syntex in Mexico City made the hormones in progesterone pills using Mexican yams (Dioscorea mexicana).{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/timeline/timeline2.html|title=American Experience {{!}} The Pill {{!}} Timeline|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2016-10-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001204801/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/timeline/timeline2.html|archive-date=October 1, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Djerassi had chemically created the pill but was not equipped to distribute it to patients. Meanwhile, Gregory Pincus and John Rock with help from the Planned Parenthood Federation of America developed the first birth control pills in the 1950s, such as mestranol/noretynodrel, which became publicly available in the 1960s through the Food and Drug Administration under the name Enovid.{{cite book| vauthors = Poston D |title=Population and Society: An Introduction to Demography|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48938-6|page=98|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CR-EXq4y8XAC&pg=PA98|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116162745/https://books.google.com/books?id=CR-EXq4y8XAC&pg=PA98|archive-date=November 16, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Medical abortion became an alternative to surgical abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and mifepristone in the 1980s.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang J, Zhou K, Shan D, Luo X | title = Medical methods for first trimester abortion | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2022 | issue = 5 | pages = CD002855 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 35608608 | pmc = 9128719 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub5 }}

{{Further|Timeline of reproductive rights legislation}}

Human rights agreements require most governments to provide family planning and contraceptive information and services. These include the requirement to create a national plan for family planning services, remove laws that limit access to family planning, ensure that a wide variety of safe and effective birth control methods are available including emergency contraceptives, make sure there are appropriately trained healthcare providers and facilities at an affordable price, and create a process to review the programs implemented. If governments fail to do the above it may put them in breach of binding international treaty obligations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cottingham J, Germain A, Hunt P | title = Use of human rights to meet the unmet need for family planning | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9837 | pages = 172–80 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22784536 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60732-6 | s2cid = 41854959 }}

In the United States, the 1965 Supreme Court decision Griswold v. Connecticut overturned a state law prohibiting the dissemination of contraception information based on a constitutional right to privacy for marital relationships. In 1972, Eisenstadt v. Baird extended this right to privacy to single people.{{cite book| vauthors = Doan A |title=Opposition and Intimidation: The Abortion Wars and Strategies of Political Harassment|url=https://archive.org/details/oppositionintimi00doan|url-access=limited|date=2007|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-06975-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oppositionintimi00doan/page/n73 62]–63}}

In 2010, the United Nations launched the Every Woman Every Child movement to assess the progress toward meeting women's contraceptive needs. The initiative has set a goal of increasing the number of users of modern birth control by 120 million women in the world's 69 poorest countries by 2020. Additionally, they aim to eradicate discrimination against girls and young women who seek contraceptives.{{cite journal| vauthors = Singh S, Darroch JE |title=Adding It Up: Costs and Benefits of Contraceptive Services Estimates for 2012|journal=Guttmacher Institute and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), 201|date=June 2012|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/AIU-2012-estimates.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805154133/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/AIU-2012-estimates.pdf|archive-date=August 5, 2012|df=mdy-all}} The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommended in 2014 that oral birth control pills should be over the counter medications.{{cite web|author1=ACOG|title=ACOG Statement on OTC Access to Contraception|url=http://www.acog.org/About-ACOG/News-Room/News-Releases/2014/ACOG-Statement-on-OTC-Access-to-Contraception|access-date=September 11, 2014|date=September 9, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910235812/http://www.acog.org/About-ACOG/News-Room/News-Releases/2014/ACOG-Statement-on-OTC-Access-to-Contraception| archive-date = September 10, 2014}}

Since at least the 1870s, American religious, medical, legislative, and legal commentators have debated contraception laws. Ana Garner and Angela Michel have found that in these discussions men often attach reproductive rights to moral and political matters, as part of an ongoing attempt to regulate human bodies. In press coverage between 1873 and 2013 they found a divide between institutional ideology and real-life experiences of women.{{cite journal| vauthors = Garner AC, Michel AR |title="The Birth Control Divide": U.S. Press Coverage of Contraception, 1873–2013|journal=Journalism & Communication Monographs|date=4 November 2016|volume=18|issue=4|pages=180–234|doi=10.1177/1522637916672457|s2cid=151781215}}

{{Main|Religion and birth control}}{{See also|Jewish views on contraception}}

Religions vary widely in their views of the ethics of birth control.{{cite journal | vauthors = Srikanthan A, Reid RL | title = Religious and cultural influences on contraception | journal = Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–137 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18254994 | doi = 10.1016/s1701-2163(16)32736-0 }} The Roman Catholic Church re-affirmed its teachings in 1968 that only natural family planning is permissible,{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html |title=Humanae Vitae: Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Regulation of Birth |author=Pope Paul VI |author-link=Pope Paul VI |date=July 25, 1968 |access-date=October 1, 2006 |publisher=Vatican |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000824053256/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html |archive-date=August 24, 2000 |df=mdy }} although large numbers of Catholics in developed countries accept and use modern methods of birth control.{{cite book| veditors = Keller RS | vauthors = Ruether RR |author-link=Rosemary Radford Ruether|title=Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America|chapter=Women in North American Catholicism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA127|year=2006|publisher=Indiana Univ. Press|location=Bloomington, IN [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-253-34686-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA132 132]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529073421/https://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC|archive-date=May 29, 2016|df=mdy-all}}{{cite book| veditors = Digby B |title=Heinemann 16–19 Geography: Global Challenges Student Book|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_c7JP6vzd4C|year=2001|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-0-435-35249-3|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-_c7JP6vzd4C&pg=PA158 158]| vauthors = Digby B, Ferretti J, Flintoff I, Owen A, Ryan C |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512204704/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_c7JP6vzd4C|archive-date=May 12, 2016|df=mdy-all}}{{cite book| vauthors = Rengel M |title=Encyclopedia of birth control|year=2000|publisher=Oryx Press|location=Phoenix, AZ|isbn=978-1-57356-255-3|page=202|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx1Kz-ezUjsC&pg=PA202|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603191009/https://books.google.com/books?id=dx1Kz-ezUjsC&pg=PA202|archive-date=June 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}} The Greek Orthodox Church admits a possible exception to its traditional teaching forbidding the use of artificial contraception, if used within marriage for certain purposes, including the spacing of births.{{cite web | vauthors = Harakas SS |title=The Stand of the Orthodox Church on Controversial Issues – Society Articles – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America |url=https://www.goarch.org/-/the-stand-of-the-orthodox-church-on-controversial-issues |publisher=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America |access-date=5 September 2019 |language=English |date=12 August 1985}} Among Protestants, there is a wide range of views from supporting none, such as in the Quiverfull movement, to allowing all methods of birth control.{{cite book| vauthors = Bennett JA |title=Water is thicker than blood : an Augustinian theology of marriage and singleness|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-531543-1|page=178|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQF4j8nv1VQC&pg=PA178|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528212537/https://books.google.com/books?id=bQF4j8nv1VQC&pg=PA178|archive-date=May 28, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Views in Judaism range from the stricter Orthodox sect, which heavily restricts the use of birth control, to the more relaxed Reform sect, which allows most.{{cite book | title=Birth Control in Jewish Law| vauthors = Feldman DM | year=1998| publisher=Jason Aronson| location=Lanham, MD| isbn=978-0-7657-6058-6}} Hindus may use both natural and modern contraceptives.{{cite web|url=http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/chaplaincy/hindu.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040323040049/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/chaplaincy/hindu.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 23, 2004 |title=Hindu Beliefs and Practices Affecting Health Care |access-date=October 6, 2006 |publisher=University of Virginia Health System }} A common Buddhist view is that preventing conception is acceptable, while intervening after conception has occurred is not.{{cite web|url=http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/MoreQA.htm#Abortion|title=More Questions & Answers on Buddhism: Birth Control and Abortion|access-date=June 14, 2008|publisher=Alan Khoo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629194749/http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/MoreQA.htm#Abortion|archive-date=June 29, 2008|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}} In Islam, contraceptives are allowed if they do not threaten health, although their use is discouraged by some.{{cite journal| vauthors = Akbar KF | title=Family Planning and Islam: A Review| journal=Hamdard Islamicus| volume=XVII| issue=3| url=http://muslim-canada.org/family.htm| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926182634/http://www.muslim-canada.org/family.htm| archive-date=September 26, 2006| df=mdy-all}}

September 26 is World Contraception Day, devoted to raising awareness and improving education about sexual and reproductive health, with a vision of a world where every pregnancy is wanted.{{cite web|url = http://www.your-life.com/en/home/world-contraception-day/ | title = World Contraception Day | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140818081827/http://www.your-life.com/en/home/world-contraception-day/ | archive-date = August 18, 2014}} It is supported by a group of governments and international NGOs, including the Office of Population Affairs, the Asian Pacific Council on Contraception, Centro Latinamericano Salud y Mujer, the European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health, the German Foundation for World Population, the International Federation of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, International Planned Parenthood Federation, the Marie Stopes International, Population Services International, the Population Council, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and Women Deliver.

There are a number of common misconceptions regarding sex and pregnancy.{{cite book| vauthors = Hutcherson H |title=What your mother never told you about s.e.x|year=2002|publisher=Perigee Book|location=New York|isbn=978-0-399-52853-8|page=201|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xu8tb2o66iIC&pg=PA201|edition=1st Perigee|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629170645/https://books.google.com/books?id=xu8tb2o66iIC&pg=PA201|archive-date=June 29, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Douching after sexual intercourse is not an effective form of birth control.{{cite book| vauthors = Rengel M |title=Encyclopedia of birth control|year=2000|publisher=Oryx Press|location=Phoenix, AZ|isbn=978-1-57356-255-3|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx1Kz-ezUjsC&pg=PA65|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506182117/https://books.google.com/books?id=dx1Kz-ezUjsC&pg=PA65|archive-date=May 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Additionally, it is associated with a number of health problems and thus is not recommended.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cottrell BH | title = An updated review of evidence to discourage douching | journal = MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing | volume = 35 | issue = 2 | pages = 102–7; quiz 108–9 | date = Mar–Apr 2010 | pmid = 20215951 | doi = 10.1097/NMC.0b013e3181cae9da | s2cid = 46715131 }} Women can become pregnant the first time they have sexual intercourse{{cite book| vauthors = Alexander W |title=New Dimensions In Women's Health – Book Alone|year=2013|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=978-1-4496-8375-7|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVPHhIM3IZ0C&pg=PA105|edition=6th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506231310/https://books.google.com/books?id=GVPHhIM3IZ0C&pg=PA105|archive-date=May 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}} and in any sexual position.{{cite book| vauthors = Sharkey H |title=Need to Know Fertility and Conception and Pregnancy|year=2013|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-00-751686-5|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc7qlSypV6UC&pg=PP17|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603092657/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc7qlSypV6UC&pg=PP17|archive-date=June 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}} It is possible, although not very likely, to become pregnant during menstruation.{{cite book| vauthors = Strange M |title=Encyclopedia of women in today's world|year=2011|publisher=Sage Reference|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|isbn=978-1-4129-7685-5|page=928|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOkPjFQoBj8C&pg=PA928|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515051725/https://books.google.com/books?id=bOkPjFQoBj8C&pg=PA928|archive-date=May 15, 2016|df=mdy-all}} Contraceptive use, regardless of its duration and type, does not have a negative effect on the ability of women to conceive following termination of use and does not significantly delay fertility. Women who use oral contraceptives for a longer duration may have a slightly lower rate of pregnancy than do women using oral contraceptives for a shorter period of time, possibly due to fertility decreasing with age.{{cite journal | vauthors = Girum T, Wasie A | title = Return of fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Contraception and Reproductive Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 9 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 30062044 | pmc = 6055351 | doi = 10.1186/s40834-018-0064-y | url = | doi-access = free }}

Access to birth control may be affected by finances and the laws within a region or country.{{cite web |title=Access to Contraception - ACOG |url=https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Health-Care-for-Underserved-Women/Access-to-Contraception?IsMobileSet=false |website=www.acog.org}} In the United States African American, Hispanic, and young women are disproportionately affected by limited access to birth control, as a result of financial disparity.{{cite web |title=Who's Impacted by Attacks on Birth Control |url=https://www.plannedparenthoodaction.org/fight-for-birth-control/facts/whos-most-impacted-by-attacks-on-birth-control |website=www.plannedparenthoodaction.org |access-date=15 October 2019 |language=en}}{{cite book | collaboration = Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Unintended Pregnancy | vauthors = Brown SS, Eisenberg L |title=Socioeconomic and Cultural Influences on Contraceptive Use |date=1995 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232120/ |language=en}} For example, Hispanic and African American women often lack insurance coverage and are more often poor.{{cite web |title=Just the Facts: Latinas & Contraception |url=https://www.latinainstitute.org/sites/default/files/NLIRH-Fact-Sheet-Latinas-and-Contraception-July-2012.pdf |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=September 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926153223/https://www.latinainstitute.org/sites/default/files/NLIRH-Fact-Sheet-Latinas-and-Contraception-July-2012.pdf |url-status=dead }} New immigrants in the United States are not offered preventive care such as birth control.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dehlendorf C, Rodriguez MI, Levy K, Borrero S, Steinauer J | title = Disparities in family planning | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 202 | issue = 3 | pages = 214–20 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20207237 | pmc = 2835625 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2009.08.022 }}

In the United Kingdom contraception can be obtained free of charge via contraception clinics, sexual health or GUM (genitourinary medicine) clinics, via some GP surgeries, some young people's services and pharmacies.{{cite web |url= https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/where-can-i-get-contraception/ |title= Where can I get contraception? |website= NHS |date= December 21, 2017 |access-date= 7 June 2022}}{{cite web |url= https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/ |title= Your contraception guide |website= NHS |date= December 21, 2017 |access-date= 7 June 2022}}

In September 2021, France announced that women aged under 25 in France will be offered free contraception from 2022. It was elaborated that they "would not be charged for medical appointments, tests, or other medical procedures related to birth control" and that this would "cover hormonal contraception, biological tests that go with it, the prescription of contraception, and all care related to this contraception".{{cite news | vauthors = Willsher K |date= 9 September 2021 |title= France to offer free contraception to women under 25 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/09/france-free-contraception-women |work= The Guardian |location= Paris |access-date= 7 June 2022}}

From August 2022 onwards contraception for women aged between 17 and 25 years will be free in the Republic of Ireland.{{cite web |url= https://www.rte.ie/news/2021/1012/1253318-contraception-women-health/ |title= Free contraception for women aged 17–25 from August | vauthors = Conneely A |date= 12 October 2021 |website= RTÉ |access-date= 7 June 2022}}{{cite web |url= https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/830c2-minister-donnelly-secures-free-contraception-for-women-aged-between-17-25-years-in-budget-2022/ |title= Minister Donnelly secures free contraception for women aged between 17–25 years in Budget 2022 |date= 22 October 2021 |website= Gov.ie |publisher= Department of Health |access-date= 7 June 2022}}

In most parts of the world, the political attitude to contraception determines whether and how much state provisioning of contraceptive care occurs. In the United States, for example, the Republican party and the Democratic party have held opposite positions, contributing to continuous policy shifts over the years.{{Cite journal |last=Swan |first=Laura E. T. |date=December 2021 |title=The impact of US policy on contraceptive access: a policy analysis |journal=Reproductive Health |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=235 |doi=10.1186/s12978-021-01289-3 |pmid=34809673 |issn=1742-4755 |doi-access=free |pmc=8607408 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sonfield |first1=Adam |last2=Gold |first2=Rachel Benson |last3=Frost |first3=Jennifer J. |last4=Darroch |first4=Jacqueline E. |date=March 2004 |title=U.S. Insurance Coverage of Contraceptives and the Impact Of Contraceptive Coverage Mandates |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1363/3607204 |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=72–79 |doi=10.1363/3607204 |issn=1538-6341}} In the 2010s, policies, and attitudes to contraceptive care shifted abruptly between Obama's and Trump's administrations. The Trump administration extensively overturned the efforts for contraceptive care, and reduced federal spending, compared to efforts and funding during the Obama administration.

Free the Pill, a collaboration between Advocates for Youth and Ibis Reproductive Health are working to bring birth control over-the-counter, covered by insurance with no age-restriction throughout the United States.{{cite web |url= https://www.advocatesforyouth.org/campaigns/free-the-pill-youth-council/ |title= #FreeThePill Youth Council |website= Advocates for Youth |access-date= 7 June 2022}}[https://apnews.com/article/abortion-science-health-birth-control-861d6d425e692ee1ead1d59926e5f3cd Over-the-counter birth control? Drugmaker seeks FDA approval], AP News July 11, 2022[https://www.ibisreproductivehealth.org/news/ibis-celebrates-first-ever-application-otc-birth-control-pill-united-states Ibis celebrates the first-ever application for an OTC birth control pill in the United States], Ibis Reproductive Health July 2022

On July 13, 2023, the first US daily oral nonprescription over-the-counter birth control pill was approved for manufacturing by the FDA. The pill, Opill is expected to be more effective in preventing unintended pregnancies than condoms are. Opill is expected to be available in 2024 but the price has yet to be set. Perrigo, a pharmaceutical company based in Dublin is the manufacturer.{{Cite news | vauthors = Belluck P |date=2023-07-13 |title=F.D.A. Approves First U.S. Over-the-Counter Birth Control Pill |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/13/health/otc-birth-control-pill.html |access-date=2023-07-13 |issn=0362-4331}}

Improvements in existing birth control methods are needed, as around half of those who get pregnant unintentionally are using birth control at the time. Many alterations of existing contraceptive methods are being studied, including a better female condom, an improved diaphragm, a patch containing only progestin, and a vaginal ring containing long-acting progesterone.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jensen JT | title = The future of contraception: innovations in contraceptive agents: tomorrow's hormonal contraceptive agents and their clinical implications | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 205 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = S21-5 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21961821 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2011.06.055 }} This vaginal ring appears to be effective for three or four months and is currently available in some areas of the world. For women who rarely have sex, the taking of the hormonal birth control levonorgestrel around the time of sex looks promising.{{cite journal | vauthors = Halpern V, Raymond EG, Lopez LM | title = Repeated use of pre- and postcoital hormonal contraception for prevention of pregnancy | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2014 | issue = 9 | pages = CD007595 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25259677 | pmc = 7196890 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007595.pub3 }}

A number of methods to perform sterilization via the cervix are being studied. One involves putting quinacrine in the uterus which causes scarring and infertility. While the procedure is inexpensive and does not require surgical skills, there are concerns regarding long-term side effects.{{cite journal | vauthors = Castaño PM, Adekunle L | title = Transcervical sterilization | journal = Seminars in Reproductive Medicine | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–9 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20352559 | doi = 10.1055/s-0030-1248134 | s2cid = 260317985 }} Another substance, polidocanol, which functions in the same manner is being looked at. A device called Essure, which expands when placed in the fallopian tubes and blocks them, was approved in the United States in 2002. In 2016, a black boxed warning regarding potentially serious side effects was added,{{Cite news| vauthors = Rabin RC |date=2016-11-21|title=Bayer's Essure Contraceptive Implant, Now With a Warning|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/well/bayers-essure-contraceptive-implant-now-with-a-warning.html|access-date=2020-05-01|issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite web|title=FDA takes additional action to better understand safety of Essure, inform patients of potential risks|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-takes-additional-action-better-understand-safety-essure-inform-patients-potential-risks | author = Office of the Commissioner |date=2020-03-24|website=FDA|language=en|access-date=2020-05-01}} and in 2018, the device was discontinued.{{Cite news| vauthors = Kaplan S |date=2018-07-20|title=Bayer Will Stop Selling the Troubled Essure Birth Control Implants|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/20/health/bayer-essure-birth-control.html|access-date=2020-05-01|issn=0362-4331}}

{{Main|Male contraceptive}}

Despite high levels of interest in male contraception,{{Cite web | vauthors = Friedman M |date=2019 |title=Interest Among U.S. Men for New Male Contraceptive Options |url=https://www.malecontraceptive.org/uploads/1/3/1/9/131958006/mci_consumerresearchstudy.pdf |access-date= 12 October 2023 |website=Male Contraceptive Initiative}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Glasier A | title = Acceptability of contraception for men: a review | journal = Contraception | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 453–456 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20933119 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2010.03.016 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Roth MY, Shih G, Ilani N, Wang C, Page ST, Bremner WJ, Swerdloff RS, Sitruk-Ware R, Blithe DL, Amory JK | display-authors = 6 | title = Acceptability of a transdermal gel-based male hormonal contraceptive in a randomized controlled trial | journal = Contraception | volume = 90 | issue = 4 | pages = 407–412 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 24981149 | pmc = 4269220 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2014.05.013 }} progress has been stymied by a lack of industry involvement. Most funding for male contraceptive research is derived from government or philanthropic sources.{{Cite web | vauthors = Wang CC |title=Male Birth Control Is in Development, but Barriers Still Stand in the Way |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/male-birth-control-is-in-development-but-barriers-still-stand-in-the-way/ |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Birth control for men |url=https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/drug-development/Birth-control-men-male-contraception/100/i41 |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=Chemical & Engineering News |language=en}}{{Cite web | vauthors = Sitruk-Ware R |date=2018-05-11 |title=Getting contraceptives for men to the market will take pharma's help |url=https://www.statnews.com/2018/05/11/contraceptives-for-men-pharma/ |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=STAT |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=G-FINDER data portal |url=https://gfinderdata.policycuresresearch.org |access-date= 12 October 2023 |website=Policy Cures Research}}

Several novel contraceptive methods based on hormonal and non-hormonal mechanisms of action are in various stages of research and development, up to and including clinical trials,{{Cite web |date=2022-02-16 |title=CDP Research: Developing Hormonal Contraception Methods for Men {{!}} NICHD – Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development |url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/about/org/dir/dph/officebranch/cdp/research/contraception_men |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=www.nichd.nih.gov |language=en}}{{Cite news | vauthors = Gorvett Z |title=The weird reasons there still isn't a male contraceptive pill |work=BBC Future |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230216-the-weird-reasons-male-birth-control-pills-are-scorned }}{{Cite web | vauthors = Gibbens S |date=2023-03-03 |title=Birth control options for men are advancing. Here's how they work. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/male-contraceptives-birth-control-science-explained |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303190333/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/male-contraceptives-birth-control-science-explained |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 3, 2023 |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=National Geographic Magazine |language=en}}{{Cite web | vauthors = Barber R |date=Dec 4, 2022 |title=In the hunt for a male contraceptive, scientists look to stop sperm in their tracks |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2022/12/04/1140512789/birth-control-male-contraceptive-sperm |access-date=Oct 12, 2023 |website=National Public Radio}}{{Cite news | vauthors = Chiu A |date=April 14, 2022 |title=Why there's still no new birth control for men |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2022/04/14/male-birth-control-pill-gel/ |access-date= 12 October 2023 |newspaper=Washington Post}}{{Cite news | vauthors = Blum D | date = 2022-03-25 |title=Despite Encouraging Research, a Male Birth Control Pill Remains Elusive |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/25/well/male-birth-control-pills.html |access-date=2023-10-12 |issn=0362-4331}} including gels, pills, injectables, implants, wearables, and oral contraceptives.{{Cite web |title=What Is In Development |url=https://www.malecontraceptive.org/what-is-in-development.html |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=Male Contraceptive Initiative |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson DJ, Johnston DS | title = A brief history and future prospects of contraception | journal = Science | volume = 380 | issue = 6641 | pages = 154–158 | date = April 2023 | pmid = 37053322 | doi = 10.1126/science.adf9341 | bibcode = 2023Sci...380..154A | s2cid = 258112296 | pmc = 10615352 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Abbe CR, Page ST, Thirumalai A | title = Male Contraception | journal = The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine | volume = 93 | issue = 4 | pages = 603–613 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 33005125 | pmc = 7513428 }}

Recent avenues of research include proteins and genes required for male fertility. For instance, the serine/threonine-protein kinase 33 (STK33) is a testis-enriched kinase that is indispensable for male fertility in humans and mice. An inhibitor of this kinase, CDD-2807, has recently been identified and induced reversible male infertility without measurable toxicity in mice.{{Cite journal |last1=Holdaway |first1=Jerrett |last2=Georg |first2=Gunda I. |date=2024-05-24 |title=An emerging target for male contraception |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp6432 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=384 |issue=6698 |pages=849–850 |doi=10.1126/science.adp6432 |pmid=38781397 |bibcode=2024Sci...384..849H |issn=0036-8075}} Such an inhibitor would be a potent male contraceptive if it passed safety and efficacy tests.

Neutering or spaying, which involves removing some of the reproductive organs, is often carried out as a method of birth control in household pets. Many animal shelters require these procedures as part of adoption agreements.{{cite book| vauthors = Millar L |title=Infectious Disease Management in Animal Shelters|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-94945-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8NbuhrrFd8C&pg=PT58|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503052318/https://books.google.com/books?id=n8NbuhrrFd8C&pg=PT58|archive-date=May 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}} In large animals the surgery is known as castration.{{cite book| veditors = Ackerman L |title=Blackwell's five-minute veterinary practice management consult|year=2007|publisher=Blackwell Pub.|location=Ames, IO|isbn=978-0-7817-5984-7|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=26FZVV40aWwC&pg=PA80|edition=1st|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610155134/https://books.google.com/books?id=26FZVV40aWwC&pg=PA80|archive-date=June 10, 2016|df=mdy-all}}

Birth control is also being considered as an alternative to hunting as a means of controlling overpopulation in wild animals.{{cite web| vauthors = Boyle R |date=March 3, 2009|title=Birth control for animals: a scientific approach to limiting the wildlife population explosion|work=Popular Science|location=New York|publisher=PopSci.com|url=http://www.popsci.com/environment/article/2009-03/birth-control-animals?single-page-view=true|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525182644/http://www.popsci.com/environment/article/2009-03/birth-control-animals?single-page-view=true|archive-date=May 25, 2012|df=mdy-all}} Contraceptive vaccines have been found to be effective in a number of different animal populations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirkpatrick JF, Lyda RO, Frank KM | title = Contraceptive vaccines for wildlife: a review | journal = American Journal of Reproductive Immunology | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 40–50 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21501279 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01003.x | s2cid = 3890080 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy JK | title = Contraceptive vaccines for the humane control of community cat populations | journal = American Journal of Reproductive Immunology | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–70 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21501281 | pmc = 5567843 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01005.x }} Kenyan goat herders fix a skirt, called an olor, to male goats to prevent them from impregnating female goats.{{cite news | title = Goat 'condoms' save Kenyan herds | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7648860.stm | work = BBC News | date = 2008-10-06 | access-date = 2008-10-06 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081006071209/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7648860.stm | archive-date = October 6, 2008 | df = mdy-all }}

• Human population planning
• Immunocontraception

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book| vauthors = Speroff L, Darney PD |title=A clinical guide for contraception|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60831-610-6|pages=242–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5XJtYkiJ0YC&pg=PT1|edition=5th|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506220517/https://books.google.com/books?id=f5XJtYkiJ0YC&pg=PT1|archive-date=May 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Stubblefield PG, Roncari DM | date = 2011 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=P3erI0J8tEQC&q=editions%3AytqC2tqT5BIC&pg=PA247 | chapter = Family Planning | pages = 211–69 | veditors = Berek JS | title = Berek & Novak's Gynecology | edition = 15th | location = Philadelphia | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | isbn = 978-1-4511-1433-1 }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Jensen JT, Mishell Jr DR | date = March 2012 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=X5KT_w6Nye8C&pg=PA215 | chapter = Family Planning: Contraception, Sterilization, and Pregnancy Termination | pages = 215–72 | veditors = Lentz GM, Lobo RA, Gershenson DM, Katz VL | title = Comprehensive Gynecology | edition = 6th | location = Philadelphia | publisher = Mosby Elsevier | isbn = 978-0-323-06986-1 }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Gavin L, Moskosky S, Carter M, Curtis K, Glass E, Godfrey E, Marcell A, Mautone-Smith N, Pazol K, Tepper N, Zapata L | display-authors = 6 | title = Providing quality family planning services: Recommendations of CDC and the U.S. Office of Population Affairs | journal = MMWR. Recommendations and Reports | volume = 63 | issue = RR-04 | pages = 1–54 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24759690 | collaboration = Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, CDC }}
• {{cite book|author=World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and Research and Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health|title=Family planning: A global handbook for providers: Evidence-based guidance developed through worldwide collaboration|year=2011|publisher=WHO and Center for Communication Programs|location=Geneva|isbn=978-0-9788563-7-3|url=http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|edition=Rev. and Updated}}
• {{cite book |last1=Moratti |first1=Sofia |title=Encyclopedia of Global Bioethics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer, Cham |isbn=978-3-319-05544-2 |pages=1–11 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-05544-2_193-1?fromPaywallRec=true |language=en |chapter=Fertility Control |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-05544-2_193-1}}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Curtis KM, Jatlaoui TC, Tepper NK, Zapata LB, Horton LG, Jamieson DJ, Whiteman MK | title = U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use, 2016 | journal = MMWR. Recommendations and Reports | volume = 65 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–66 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27467319 | doi = 10.15585/mmwr.rr6504a1 | doi-access = free }}
• {{cite book |last1=Samimi |first1=Parisa |last2=Basu |first2=Tania |title=Handbook of Gynecology |date=2017 |publisher=Springer, Cham |isbn=978-3-319-17798-4 |pages=21–34 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-17798-4_17 |language=en |chapter=Contraception and Family Planning |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-17798-4_17}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sel |first1=Görker |title=Practical Guide to Oral Exams in Obstetrics and Gynecology : Questions & Answers |date=2020 |publisher=Springer, Cham |isbn=978-3-030-29669-8 |pages=185–190 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29669-8_30 |language=en |chapter=Contraception |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-29669-8_30}}
• {{cite book |last1=Shoupe |first1=Donna |editor-first1=Donna |editor-last1=Shoupe |title=The Handbook of Contraception: Evidence Based Practice Recommendations and Rationales |date=2020 |publisher=Humana Press |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-030-46390-8 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-46391-5 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-46391-5}}

{{refend}}

{{sister project links|collapsible=true|c=Category:Contraception|d=Q122224}}

{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes lcheading=Birth control}}

• {{cite web | title = WHO Fact Sheet |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs351/en/|access-date=23 July 2017|date=July 2017}}
• {{cite web|title=Birth Control Comparison Chart|url=http://www.birth-control-comparison.info/|publisher=Cedar River Clinics}}
• [https://www.who.int/rhem/procurement/en/ Bulk procurement of birth control] by the World Health Organization

{{Reproductive health}}

{{Birth control methods}}

{{Human impact on the environment}}

{{Women's health}}

{{Sex}}

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{{Pregnancy}}

{{Authority control}}

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