Ambush predator

File:Foraging Sequence.svg cycle, ambush predators choose variants of the sit-and-wait strategy in place of active pursuit to capture their prey.{{cite book |last=Kramer |first=Donald L. |chapter=Foraging behavior |editor-last1=Fox |editor-first1=C. W. |editor-last2=Roff |editor-first2=D. A. |editor-last3=Fairbairn |editor-first3=D. J. |title=Evolutionary Ecology: Concepts and Case Studies |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=232–238 |chapter-url=http://www.biology.mcgill.ca/faculty/kramer/articles/Kramer_90_part_a.pdf |isbn=9780198030133 |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712172711/http://www.biology.mcgill.ca/faculty/kramer/articles/Kramer_90_part_a.pdf |url-status=dead }}]]

Ambush predators usually remain motionless (sometimes hidden) and wait for prey to come within ambush distance before pouncing. Ambush predators are often camouflaged, and may be solitary. Pursuit predation becomes a better strategy than ambush predation when the predator is faster than the prey.{{cite journal |author1=Scharf, I. |author2=Nulman, E. |author3=Ovadia, O. |author4=Bouskila, A. |journal=The American Naturalist |title=Efficiency evaluation of two competing foraging modes under different conditions |volume=168 |issue=3 |year=2006 |pages=350–357 |url=http://www.bgu.ac.il/~oferovad/library/Scharf06ForMod.pdf |doi=10.1086/506921 |pmid=16947110|bibcode=2006ANat..168..350S |s2cid=13809116 }} Ambush predators use many intermediate strategies. For example, when a pursuit predator is faster than its prey over a short distance, but not in a long chase, then either stalking or ambush becomes necessary as part of the strategy.

Ambush often relies on concealment, whether by staying out of sight or by means of camouflage.

{{multiple image|align=center|image1=Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider 002.jpg|width1=166|caption1=Trapdoor spider Misgolas rapax in its burrow|image2=Sason robustum and its nest.jpg|width2=300|caption2=The trapdoor spider Sason robustum and its nest}}

Ambush predators such as trapdoor spiders and Australian crab spiders on land and mantis shrimps in the sea rely on concealment, constructing and hiding in burrows. These provide effective concealment at the price of a restricted field of vision.{{cite journal |author=deVries, M. S. |author2=Murphy, E. A. K. |author3=Patek S. N. |title=Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp |year=2012 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=Pt 24 |pages=4374–4384 |doi=10.1242/jeb.075317 |pmid=23175528|doi-access=free |bibcode=2012JExpB.215.4374D }}{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Liphistius |title=Trapdoor spiders |publisher=BBC |access-date=12 December 2014}}{{cite web |url=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_trapdoor_spider.php|access-date=12 December 2014 |title=Trapdoor spider |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |year=2014}}{{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=Talia Y. |last2=Biewener |first2=Andrew A. |title=Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |date=2015 |doi=10.1093/icb/icv074 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/25858000/MooreICB2015_Preprint.pdf?sequence=1 |pmid=26117833 |volume=55|issue=6 |pages=1188–97 |doi-access=free }}

Trapdoor spiders excavate a burrow and seal the entrance with a web trapdoor hinged on one side with silk. The best-known is the thick, bevelled "cork" type, which neatly fits the burrow's opening. The other is the "wafer" type; it is a basic sheet of silk and earth. The door's upper side is often effectively camouflaged with local materials such as pebbles and sticks. The spider spins silk fishing lines, or trip wires, that radiate out of the burrow entrance. When the spider is using the trap to capture prey, its chelicerae (protruding mouthparts) hold the door shut on the end furthest from the hinge. Prey make the silk vibrate, and alert the spider to open the door and ambush the prey.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Liphistius |title=Trapdoor spiders |publisher=BBC |access-date=December 12, 2014}}{{cite web |url=http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_trapdoor_spider.php |access-date=December 12, 2014 |title=Trapdoor spider |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |year=2014}}

{{further|Camouflage}}

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| image1 = Tasselled Wobbegong Shark (14280770698).jpg

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| caption1 = Tasselled wobbegong relies on its disruptive camouflage to ambush fish and invertebrates.

| image2 = Striped anglerfish ( Antennarius striatus ).jpg

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| caption2 = Striated frogfish uses camouflage and aggressive mimicry in the form of a fishing rod-like esca (lure) on its head to attract prey.

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Many ambush predators make use of camouflage so that their prey can come within striking range without detecting their presence. Among insects, coloration in ambush bugs closely matches the flower heads where they wait for prey.{{Cite journal|last1=Boyle |first1=Julia |last2=Start |first2=Denon |date=2020 |editor-last=Galván |editor-first=Ismael |title=Plasticity and habitat choice match colour to function in an ambush bug|journal=Functional Ecology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=822–829 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.13528 |s2cid=214302722 |issn=0269-8463 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020FuEco..34..822B }} Among fishes, the warteye stargazer buries itself nearly completely in the sand and waits for prey.{{FishBase |genus=Gillellus |species=uranidea |month=April |year=2013}} The devil scorpionfish typically lies partially buried on the sea floor or on a coral head during the day, covering itself with sand and other debris to further camouflage itself.{{cite journal|last=Gosline |first=William A. |date=July 1994 |title=Function and structure in the paired fins of scorpaeniform fishes |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=219–226 |doi=10.1007/BF00002508 |bibcode=1994EnvBF..40..219G |hdl=2027.42/42637 |s2cid=30229791 |hdl-access=free }}World Database of Marine Species: [http://www.seadb.net/schedule.php?ids=694 Spiny devil fish] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304131009/http://www.seadb.net/schedule.php?ids=694 |date=2012-03-04 }}. Accessed 03-22-2010.{{cite journal |last=Michael |first=Scott |title=Speak of the devil: fish in the genus Inimicus |journal=SeaScope |volume=18 |date=Winter 2001 |url=http://www.instantocean.com/sites/InstantOcean/knowledge/seascope/past/SS_Vol18_2001.pdf |access-date=2010-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713043740/http://www.instantocean.com/sites/InstantOcean/knowledge/seascope/past/SS_Vol18_2001.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-13 }}WetWebMedia.com: [http://www.wetwebmedia.com/inimicines.htm The Ghoulfish/Scorpion/Stonefishes of the Subfamily Choridactylinae (Inimicinae)], by Bob Fenner. Accessed 03-27-2010. The tasselled wobbegong is a shark whose adaptations as an ambush predator include a strongly flattened and camouflaged body with a fringe that breaks up its outline.{{cite journal |last1=Ceccarelli |first1=D. M. |last2=Williamson |first2=D. H. |title=Sharks that eat sharks: opportunistic predation by wobbegongs |journal=Coral Reefs |volume=31 |issue=2 |date=2012-02-04 |doi=10.1007/s00338-012-0878-z |pages=471|bibcode=2012CorRe..31..471C |doi-access=free }} Among amphibians, the Pipa pipa's brown coloration blends in with the murky waters of the Amazon Rainforest which allows for this species to lie in wait and ambush its prey.{{Cite journal |last=Buchacher |first=Christian O. |date=1993-01-01 |title=Field studies on the small Surinam toad, Pipa arrabali, near Manaus, Brazil |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/amre/14/1/article-p59_6.xml |journal=Amphibia-Reptilia |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1163/156853893X00192 |issn=1568-5381|url-access=subscription }}

{{main|Aggressive mimicry}}

{{multiple image |align=center|image1=229 - ZONE-TAILED HAWK (4-11-2015) blue haven road, patagonia, santa cruz co, az -02 (16906279787).jpg |width1=192 |caption1=Claimed mimic: zone-tailed hawk |image2=Cathartes aura-in flight-bodega head.jpg |width2=180 |caption2=Prey and possible model: Turkey vulture}}{{-}}

File:Mantis Hymenopus coronatus 6 Luc Viatour (cropped).jpg, mimics a rainforest orchid of southeast Asia to lure its prey, pollinator insects.]]

Many ambush predators actively attract their prey towards them before ambushing them. This strategy is called aggressive mimicry, using the false promise of nourishment to lure prey. The alligator snapping turtle is a well-camouflaged ambush predator. Its tongue bears a conspicuous pink extension that resembles a worm and can be wriggled around;{{cite journal |last1=Spindel |first1=E. L. |last2=Dobie |first2=J. L. |last3=Buxton |first3=D. F. |year=2005 |title=Functional mechanisms and histologic composition of the lingual appendage in the alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temmincki (Troost) (Testudines: Chelydridae) |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=194 |issue= 3 |pages=287–301 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1051940308 |pmid=29914228|s2cid=49305881 }} fish that try to eat the "worm" are themselves eaten by the turtle. Similarly, some reptiles such as Elaphe rat snakes employ caudal luring (tail luring) to entice small vertebrates into striking range.{{cite journal |author=Mullin, S.J. |year=1999 |title=Caudal distraction by rat snakes (Colubridae, Elaphe): A novel behaviour used when capturing mammalian prey |journal=Great Basin Naturalist |volume=59 |pages=361–367}}

The zone-tailed hawk, which resembles the turkey vulture, flies among flocks of turkey vultures, then suddenly breaks from the formation and ambushes one of them as its prey.{{cite book |last=Smith |first=William John |title=The Behavior of Communicating: an ethological approach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zu2ML2rigZ4C&pg=PA381 |year=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04379-4 |page=381 |quote=Others rely on the technique adopted by a wolf in sheep's clothing—they mimic a harmless species. ... Other predators even mimic their prey's prey: angler fish (Lophiiformes) and alligator snapping turtles Macroclemys temmincki can wriggle fleshy outgrowths of their fins or tongues and attract small predatory fish close to their mouths.}}{{cite journal |last1=Willis |first1=E. O. |year=1963 |title=Is the Zone-Tailed Hawk a Mimic of the Turkey Vulture? |journal=The Condor |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=313–317 |doi=10.2307/1365357 |jstor=1365357 }} There is however some controversy about whether this is a true case of wolf in sheep's clothing mimicry.{{cite journal |last=Clark |first=William S. |title=Is the zone-tailed hawk a mimic? |journal=Birding |volume=36 |issue=5 |year=2004 |pages=495–498}}

Flower mantises are aggressive mimics, resembling flowers convincingly enough to attract prey that come to collect pollen and nectar. The orchid mantis actually attracts its prey, pollinator insects, more effectively than flowers do.{{cite book|last=Cott |first=Hugh |title=Adaptive Coloration in Animals |publisher=Methuen |year=1940 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/adaptivecolorati00cott/page/392 392–393] |author-link=Hugh Cott |title-link=Adaptive Coloration in Animals}}{{cite journal |last=Annandale |first=Nelson |title=Observations on the habits and natural surroundings of insects made during the 'Skeat Expedition' to the Malay Peninsula, 1899–1900 |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |volume=69 |year=1900 |pages=862–865}}{{cite journal|last1=O'Hanlon |first1=James C. |last2=Holwell |first2=Gregory I. |last3=Herberstein |first3=Marie E. |title=Pollinator deception in the orchid mantis |journal=The American Naturalist |year=2014 |volume=183 |issue=1 |pages=126–132 |doi=10.1086/673858 |pmid=24334741|s2cid=2228423 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014ANat..183..126O }}{{cite book |last=Levine |first=Timothy R. |title=Encyclopedia of Deception |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JmlBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA675 |year=2014 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-1-4833-8898-4 |page=675 |quote=In aggressive mimicry, the predator is 'a wolf in sheep's clothing'. Mimicry is used to appear harmless or even attractive to lure its prey.}} Crab spiders, similarly, are coloured like the flowers they habitually rest on, but again, they can lure their prey even away from flowers.{{cite journal |last1=Vieira |first1=Camila |last2=Ramires |first2=Eduardo N. |last3=Vasconcellos-Neto |first3=João |last4=Poppi |first4=Ronei J. |last5=Romero |first5=Gustavo Q. |title=Crab Spider Lures Prey In Flowerless Neighborhoods |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |date=2017 |page=9188 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-09456-y |pmc=5569008 |pmid=28835630|bibcode=2017NatSR...7.9188V }}

{{Multiple image |direction = horizontal |align = center |width1 = 203 |image1 = Antlion1 by Jonathan Numer.jpg |caption1 = Antlion larva with grasping mandibles |width2 = 180 |image2 = Antlion trap.jpg |caption2 = Antlion's sandpit trap}}

Some ambush predators build traps to help capture their prey. Lacewings are a flying insect in the order Neuroptera. In some species, their larval form, known as the antlion, is an ambush predator. Eggs are laid in the earth, often in caves or under a rocky ledge. The juvenile creates a small, crater shaped trap. The antlion hides under a light cover of sand or earth. When an ant, beetle or other prey slides into the trap, the antlion grabs the prey with its powerful jaws.{{cite web |publisher=National Geographic |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/antlion_trap |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617144400/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/antlion_trap |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 17, 2014 |title=Video of antlion larva ambushing an ant |access-date=November 30, 2014}}{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p007stjv |title=Antlion ambush |date=26 January 2012 |publisher=BBC |access-date=November 30, 2014}}

Some but not all web-spinning spiders are sit-and-wait ambush predators. The sheetweb spiders (Linyphiidae) tend to stay with their webs for long periods and so resemble sit-and-wait predators, whereas the orb-weaving spiders (such as the Araneidae) tend to move frequently from one patch to another (and thus resemble active foragers).{{cite journal |last=Janetos |first=Anthony C. |title=Foraging tactics of two guilds of web-spinning spiders |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=10 |issue=1 |year=1982 |doi=10.1007/bf00296392 |pages=19–27 |bibcode=1982BEcoS..10...19J |s2cid=19631772 }}

File:Leopard cat vertical pupils nocturnal ambush predator.jpg have vertical pupils, enabling them to judge distance to prey accurately in dim light.]]

Ambush predators must time their strike carefully. They need to detect the prey, assess it as worth attacking, and strike when it is in exactly the right place. They have evolved a variety of adaptations that facilitate this assessment. For example, pit vipers prey on small birds, choosing targets of the right size for their mouth gape: larger snakes choose larger prey. They prefer to strike prey that is both warm and moving;{{cite journal |last1=Shine |first1=R. |last2=Sun |first2=L.-X. |title=Attack strategy of an ambush predator: which attributes of the prey trigger a pit-viper's strike? |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=17 |issue=3 |year=2003 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2435.2003.00738.x |pages=340–348|doi-access=free |bibcode=2003FuEco..17..340S }} their pit organs between the eye and the nostril contain infrared (heat) receptors, enabling them to find and perhaps judge the size of their small, warm-blooded prey.{{cite journal |last=Fang |first=Janet |title=Snake infrared detection unravelled |journal=Nature |date=2010-03-14 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.122}}

The deep-sea tripodfish Bathypterois grallator uses tactile and mechanosensory cues to identify food in its low-light environment.{{cite book|last=Hoar |first=W. S. |author2=Randall, D. J. |author3=Conte, F. P. |series=Fish Physiology |volume=16 |title=Deep-Sea Fishes |publisher=Academic Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-12-350440-6 |page=344}} The fish faces into the current, waiting for prey to drift by.{{cite book |author=Hyde, N. |title=Deep Sea Extremes |url=https://archive.org/details/deepseaextremes0000hyde |url-access=registration |publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7787-4501-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/deepseaextremes0000hyde/page/16 16]}}{{cite book|author=Winner, C. |title=Life on the Edge |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeonedge0000winn |url-access=registration |publisher=Lerner Publications |year=2006 |isbn=0-8225-2499-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifeonedge0000winn/page/18 18]}}{{cite book |author1=Gage, J. D. |author2=Tyler, P.A. |title=Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-521-33665-1 |pages=86}}

Several species of Felidae (cats) and snakes have vertically elongated (slit) pupils, advantageous for nocturnal ambush predators as it helps them to estimate the distance to prey in dim light; diurnal and pursuit predators in contrast have round pupils.{{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=M. S. |last2=Sprague |first2=W. W. |last3=Schmoll |first3=J. |last4=Parnell |first4=J. A. Q. |last5=Love |first5=G. D. |title=Why do animal eyes have pupils of different shapes? |journal=Science Advances |volume=1 |issue=7 |date=2015-08-07 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500391 |pages=e1500391|pmc=4643806 |pmid=26601232|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0391B }} Supplement: [https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1500391 List of species by pupil shape].

{{multiple image|align=center|image1=MantisShrimpLyd.jpg|width1=132|caption1=Mantis shrimp captures its prey rapidly with its mantis-like front legs.|image2=Commerson's Frogfish, Kona, Hawaii (cropped).jpg|width2=153|caption2=Frogfish traps its prey by suddenly opening its jaws and sucking the prey in.}}

Ambush predators often have adaptations for seizing their prey rapidly and securely. The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap the prey, given that the attack is not modifiable once launched.{{cite journal |title=Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp |author=deVries, M. S. |author2=Murphy, E. A. K. |author3=Patek, S. N. |year=2012 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=24 |pages=4374–4384 |doi=10.1242/jeb.075317 |pmid=23175528|doi-access=free |bibcode=2012JExpB.215.4374D }} Zebra mantis shrimp capture agile prey such as fish primarily at night while hidden in burrows, striking very hard and fast, with a mean peak speed {{cvt|2.30|m/s|mph}} and mean duration of 24.98 ms.

File:Chameleons Tongue.GIF at food]]

Chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae) are highly adapted as ambush predators.{{cite book |last1=Tolley |first1=Krystal A. |last2=Herrel |first2=Anthony |title=The Biology of Chameleons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3BMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |year=2013 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95738-1 |page=128 |quote=Chameleons may also employ a form of movement-based camouflage, ... [they] often rhythmically rock backward and forward as they walk ... [perhaps] imitating a swaying leaf ... moving in the breeze ... The behavior is widespread in highly cryptic, generally slow-moving, ambush predators, notably chameleons and some snakes and mantids}} They can change colour to match their surroundings and often climb through trees with a swaying motion, probably to mimic the movement of the leaves and branches they are surrounded by. All chameleons are primarily insectivores and feed by ballistically projecting their tongues, often twice the length of their bodies, to capture prey.{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jmor.20053 |pmid=22730103 |title=Scaling of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons |author1=Anderson, C. V. |author2=Sheridan, T. |author3=Deban, S. M. |journal=Journal of Morphology |year=2012 |volume=273 |issue=11 |pages=1214–1226 |s2cid=21033176 }}Anderson, Christopher V. (2009) [http://www.chamaeleonidae.com/Movies/Pages/Rhampholeon_spinosus.html Rhampholeon spinosus feeding video]. chamaeleonidae.com The tongue is projected in as little as 0.07 seconds,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.0910778107 |title= Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature |author1=Anderson, C.V. |author2=Deban, S. M. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2010 |volume=107 |issue=12 |pages=5495–5499 |bibcode= 2010PNAS..107.5495A |pmid=20212130 |pmc=2851764|url=https://works.bepress.com/stephen_deban/3/download/ |doi-access= free }} and is launched at an acceleration of over 41 g. The power with which the tongue is launched, over 3000 W·kg⁻¹, is more than muscle can produce, indicating that energy is stored in an elastic tissue for sudden release.{{cite journal |title= Evidence for an elastic projection mechanism in the chameleon tongue |author1=de Groot, J. H. |author2=van Leeuwen, J. L. |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B |year=2004 |volume=271 |issue= 1540 |pages=761–770 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2637 |pmc=1691657 |pmid=15209111}}

All fishes face a basic problem when trying to swallow prey: opening their mouth may pull food in, but closing it will push the food out again. Frogfishes capture their prey by suddenly opening their jaws, with a mechanism which enlarges the volume of the mouth cavity up to 12-fold and pulls the prey (crustaceans, molluscs and other whole fishes) into the mouth along with water; the jaws close without reducing the volume of the mouth cavity. The attack can be as fast as 6 milliseconds.{{cite web |last=Bray |first=Dianne |title=Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius |url=http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2835 |website=Fishes of Australia |access-date=14 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914181407/http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2835 |archive-date=14 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}

File:Larva of the giant waterbug (Lethocerus patruelis) attacking fish (Pseudorasbora parva) - ZooKeys-319-119-s001.ogv nymph attacking a fish]]

Ambush predation is widely distributed across the animal kingdom. It is found in many vertebrates including fishes such as the frogfishes (anglerfishes) of the sea bottom, and the pikes of freshwater; reptiles including crocodiles,{{cite web |url=http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals/CreatureFeature/Nile-crocodile |title=Nile Crocodile: Photos, Video, E-card, Map – National Geographic Kids |publisher=Kids.nationalgeographic.com |date=2002 |access-date=2010-03-16 |archive-date=2009-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116061024/http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Animals/CreatureFeature/Nile-crocodile |url-status=dead }} snapping turtles,{{cite web|url=http://nature.ca/notebooks/english/snapper.htm|title=Common Snapping Turtle|year=2013|access-date=December 2, 2014|publisher=Canadian Museum of Nature}} the mulga dragon,{{cite book |last=Browne-Cooper |first= Robert|author2=Brian Bush |author3=Brad Maryan |author4=David Robinson |title= Reptiles and Frogs in the Bush: Southwestern Australia|year= 2007|publisher=University of Western Australia Press |isbn= 9781920694746 |pages=145, 146 }} and many snakes such as the black mamba;{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Adele |title=Mambas |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2004 |location=Mankato, Minnesota |pages=25 |isbn=9780736821377 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMoGSbemC1UC&q=mamba%20adele%20richardson&pg=PA14 |access-date=2010-05-19}} mammals such as the cats;{{cite web |last1=Etnyre |first1=Erica |last2=Lande |first2=Jenna |last3=Mckenna |first3=Alison |title=Felidae {{!}} Cats |url=http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Felidae/ |website=Animal Diversity Web |access-date=28 September 2018}} and birds such as the anhinga (darter).{{cite journal|journal= Journal of Avian Biology |volume=38 |pages=507–514 |year=2007 |title= Diving in shallow water: the foraging ecology of darters (Aves: Anhingidae)|author=Ryan, P. G.|issue=4 |doi=10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04070.x|doi-broken-date=3 December 2024 }} The strategy is found in several invertebrate phyla including arthropods such as mantises,{{cite web |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/praying-mantis-vs-grasshopper-predation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414001827/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/praying-mantis-vs-grasshopper-predation|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 14, 2014|title=Praying mantis ambushes a grasshopper|publisher=National Geographic |access-date=November 30, 2014}}{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Mantis |publisher=BBC |title=Nature wildlife: Praying mantis |access-date=November 30, 2014}}{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Mantis |title=How the praying mantis hides |publisher=Pawnation |access-date=November 30, 2014}} purseweb spiders,{{cite book |author=Piper, R. |author-link=Ross Piper |year=2007 |title=Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals|url=https://archive.org/details/extraordinaryani0000pipe|url-access=registration|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=9780313339226 }} and some crustaceans; cephalopod molluscs such as the colossal squid;{{cite web |author=Bourton, J. |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8664000/8664542.stm |title=Monster colossal squid is slow not fearsome predator |publisher=BBC |year=2010|access-date=December 1, 2014}} and starfish such as Leptasterias tenera.{{cite journal |author1=Hendler, G. |author2=Franz, D. R. |year=1982 |title=The biology of a brooding seastar, Leptasterias tenera, in Block Island Sound |journal=Biological Bulletin |volume=162 |issue=1 |pages=273–289 |url=http://www.biolbull.org/content/162/3/273.full.pdf+html |doi=10.2307/1540983 |jstor=1540983 |access-date=2014-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202110/http://www.biolbull.org/content/162/3/273.full.pdf+html |archive-date=2015-09-23 |url-status=dead }}

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• [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217154804/http://protist.biology.washington.edu/biol454/Lecture%20Notes%20%5B4%20per%20pg%5D/lec_16_predation_4C.pdf Predation lecture] University of Washington

Category:Ethology

Category:Predation

Category:Articles containing video clips