Amphipoda

The name Amphipoda comes, via Neo-Latin {{lang|la|amphipoda}}, from the Greek roots {{lang|el|ἀμφί}} 'on both/all sides' and {{lang|el|πούς}} 'foot'. This contrasts with the related Isopoda, which have a single kind of thoracic leg.{{OED|Amphipoda}} Particularly among anglers, amphipods are known as freshwater shrimp, scuds, or sideswimmers.{{cite web |url=http://www.flyfishersrepublic.com/entomology/freshwater-shrimp/ |title=Freshwater shrimp (scuds, sideswimmers) – Class: Crustacea, Order: Amphipoda |first=Brian |last=Chan |publisher=Fly Fishers' Republic |access-date=April 7, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117234302/http://www.flyfishersrepublic.com:80/entomology/freshwater-shrimp/ |archive-date=17 January 2020 |url-status=live}}

File:Scheme amphipod anatomy-en.svgn amphipod Leucothoe incisa]]

The body of an amphipod is divided into 13 segments, which can be grouped into a head, a thorax and an abdomen.{{cite book |first1=Sam |last1=Wade |first2=Tracy |last2=Corbin |first3=Linda-Marie |last3=McDowell |isbn=1-876562-67-6 |year=2004 |publisher=Waterwatch South Australia |title=Critter Catalogue. A guide to the aquatic invertebrates of South Australian inland waters |chapter=Class Crustacea |url=http://www.sa.waterwatch.org.au/pdfs/critters_5_crustaceans.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091017035859/http://sa.waterwatch.org.au/pdfs/critters_5_crustaceans.pdf |archive-date=2009-10-17 }}

The head is fused to the thorax, and bears two pairs of antennae and one pair of sessile compound eyes.{{cite web|url=http://www.tafi.org.au/zooplankton/imagekey/malacostraca/peracarida/amphipoda/amphipoda.html |title=Order Amphipoda |work=Guide to the marine zooplankton of south eastern Australia |year=2008 |publisher=Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720143838/http://www.tafi.org.au/zooplankton/imagekey/malacostraca/peracarida/amphipoda/amphipoda.html |archive-date=2008-07-20 }} It also carries the mouthparts, but these are mostly concealed.

The thorax and abdomen are usually quite distinct and bear different kinds of legs; they are typically laterally compressed, and there is no carapace. The thorax bears eight pairs of uniramous appendages, the first of which are used as accessory mouthparts; the next four pairs are directed forwards, and the last three pairs are directed backwards. Gills are present on the thoracic segments, and there is an open circulatory system with a heart, using haemocyanin to carry oxygen in the haemolymph to the tissues. The uptake and excretion of salts is controlled by special glands on the antennae.

The abdomen is divided into two parts: the pleosome which bears swimming legs; and the urosome, which comprises a telson and three pairs of uropods which do not form a tail fan as they do in animals such as true shrimp.

File:Amphipodredkils (flipped).jpg

File:Lepidepecreum longicornis.jpg (Amphilochidea: Lysianassidae)]]

File:Pariambus typicus.jpg (Senticaudata: Caprellidae)]]

File:Hyperia galba.jpg (Hyperiidea: Hyperiidae)]]

Amphipods are typically less than {{convert|10|mm|1}} long, but the largest recorded living amphipods were {{convert|28|cm}} long, and were photographed at a depth of {{convert|5300|m}} in the Pacific Ocean.{{cite book |first1=J. Laurens |last1=Barnard |first2=Darl E. |last2=Bowers |first3=Eugene C. |last3=Haderlie |chapter=Amphipoda: The Amphipods and Allies |title=Intertidal Invertebrates of California |editor1-first = Robert H. | editor1-last = Morris | editor2-first = Robert Hugh | editor2-last = Morris | editor3-first = Donald Putnam | editor3-last = Abbott | editor4-first = Eugene Clinton | editor4-last = Haderlie |pages=559–566 |year=1980 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-1045-7}} Samples retrieved from the stomach of a black-footed albatross had a reconstructed length of {{convert|34|cm}}; it was assigned to the same species, Alicella gigantea.{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1548395 |title=The supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea Chevreux from the North Pacific Gyre |first1=J. Laurens |last1=Barnard |first2=Camilla L. |last2=Ingram |journal=Journal of Crustacean Biology |volume=6 |issue=4 |year=1986 |pages=825–839 |jstor=1548395}} A study of the Kermadec Trench observed more specimens of A. gigantea, the largest of which was estimated at 34.9 cm long, and collected some for examination, the largest of which was measured at 27.8 cm long.{{Cite journal |last1=Jamieson |first1=A. J. |last2=Lacey |first2=N. C. |last3=Lörz |first3=A. -N. |last4=Rowden |first4=A. A. |last5=Piertney |first5=S. B. |date=2013-08-01 |title=The supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea (Crustacea: Alicellidae) from hadal depths in the Kermadec Trench, SW Pacific Ocean |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967064512001932 |journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography |series=Deep-Sea Biodiversity and Life History Processes |language=en |volume=92 |pages=107–113 |doi=10.1016/j.dsr2.2012.12.002 |bibcode=2013DSRII..92..107J |issn=0967-0645|url-access=subscription }} The smallest known amphipods are less than {{convert|1|mm|2}} long.{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.1969.0014 |title=The fauna of Rennell and Bellona, Solomon Islands |first=T. |last=Wolff |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=255 |issue=800 |year=1969 |pages=321–343 |jstor=2416857|bibcode=1969RSPTB.255..321W |doi-access= }} The size of amphipods is limited by the availability of dissolved oxygen, such that the amphipods in Lake Titicaca at an altitude of {{convert|3800|m}} can only grow up to {{convert|22|mm}}, compared to lengths of {{convert|90|mm}} in Lake Baikal at {{convert|455|m|-2}}.{{cite journal |first1=L. S. |last1=Peck |first2=G. |last2=Chapelle |title=Reduced oxygen at high altitude limits maximum size |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2003.0054 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |year=2003 |volume=270 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=S166–S167 |pmid=14667371 |pmc=1809933}}

Some amphipods exhibit sexual dimorphism. In dimorphic species, males are usually larger than females, although this is reversed in the genus Crangonyx.

Amphipods engage in amplexus, a precopulatory guarding behavior in which males will grasp a female with their gnathopods (enlarged appendages used for feeding) and carry the female held against their ventral surface. Amplexus can last from two to over fifteen days, depending on water temperature, and ends when the female molts, at which point her eggs are ready for fertilisation.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Glazier |first=Doug |editor-last= Likens |editor-first=Gene |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Inland Waters |title=Amphipoda |year=2009 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-088462-9 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370626-3.00154-X |pages=89–115 }}

Mature females bear a marsupium, or brood pouch, which holds her eggs while they are fertilised, and until the young are ready to hatch. As a female ages, she produces more eggs in each brood. Mortality is around 25–50% for the eggs. There are no larval stages; the eggs hatch directly into a juvenile form, and sexual maturity is generally reached after 6 moults. Some species have been known to eat their own exuviae after moulting

Over 10,700 species of amphipods are currently recognised.{{BioRef|WoRMS|url=https://www.marinespecies.org/amphipoda/index.php |title=Introduction |db= World Amphipoda Database |access-date=9 January 2025}} The higher taxonomy of Amphipoda has been thoroughly rearranged in the 21th century, and currently comprises six suborders:

• Amphilochidea (89 families; 700 genera; 4,308 species)
• Colomastigidea (2 families; 3 genera; 60 species)
• Hyperiidea (35 families; 76 genera; 284 species)
• Hyperiopsidea (3 families; 5 genera; 15 species)
• Pseudingolfiellidea (1 families; 1 genera; 4 species)
• Senticaudata (109 families; 983 genera; 6,007 species)

A previous classification comprised the four suborders Gammaridea, Caprellidea, Hyperiidea, and Ingolfiellidea.{{cite book |url=http://atiniui.nhm.org/pdfs/3839/3839.pdf |title=An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea |first1=Joel W. |last1=Martin |first2=George E. |last2=Davis |year=2001 |page=132 |publisher=Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County |access-date=2010-04-08 |archive-date=2013-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512091254/http://atiniui.nhm.org/pdfs/3839/3839.pdf }}, of which Gammaridea contained the majority of taxa, including all the freshwater and terrestrial species.{{cite web|title=What are amphipods? |first=John R. |last=Holsinger |publisher=Old Dominion University |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url=http://sci.odu.edu/biology/directory/Holsinger/jrh/whatis.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720021054/http://sci.odu.edu/biology/directory/Holsinger/jrh/whatis.htm |archive-date=July 20, 2011 }} Gammaridea was recognised as a phylogenetically problematic group, and a new classification was developed by James Lowry and Alan Myers in a series of works over 2003–2017, using cladistic analysis of morphological characters.{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=A. A. |last2=Lowry |first2=J. K. |year=2003 |title=A Phylogeny and a New Classification of the Corophiidea Leach, 1814 (Amphipoda) |journal=Journal of Crustacean Biology |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=443–485 |doi=10.1651/0278-0372(2003)023[0443:APAANC]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0278-0372 |s2cid=85750244 }}{{cite journal |first1=J. K. |last1=Lowry |first2=A. A. |last2=Myers |year=2013 |title=A phylogeny and classification of the Senticaudata subord. nov. (Crustacea: Amphipoda) |journal=Zootaxa |volume=3610 |issue=1 |pages=1–80 |url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2013/f/zt03610p080.pdf |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3610.1.1|pmid=24699701 }}{{cite journal |url=http://www.mapress.com/j/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4265.1.1/11015 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4265.1.1 |title=A Phylogeny and Classification of the Amphipoda with the establishment of the new order Ingolfiellida (Crustacea: Peracarida) |first1=J.K. |last1=Lowry |first2=A.A. |last2=Myers |journal=Zootaxa |publisher=Magnolia Press |volume=4265 |issue=1 |year=2017 |pages=001–089 |pmid=28610392 |doi-access=free }} It started with breaking up and replacing Gammaridea. The largest of the new suborders, Senticaudata, comprises over half of the known amphipod species, including practically all freshwater taxa. At the same time, Ingolfiellidea was split from Amphipoda and reclassified as order Ingolfiellida. The more recent work of Copilaş-Ciocianu et al. (2020) using analysis of molecular data found general support for three major groups corresponding to suborders Amphilochidea, Hyperiidea and Senticaudata, but suggests some groups need to move between Amphilochidea and Senticaudata in a taxonomic revision.{{Cite journal|last1=Copilaş-Ciocianu|first1=Denis|last2=Borko|first2=Špela|last3=Fišer|first3=Cene|year=2020|title=The late blooming amphipods: global change promoted post-Jurassic ecological radiation despite Palaeozoic origin |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=143 |language=en |page=106664 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106664 |biorxiv=10.1101/675140 |pmid=31669816 |bibcode=2020MolPE.14306664C |s2cid=196649863 }}

Amphipods are thought to have originated in the Lower Carboniferous. Despite the group's age, however, the fossil record of the order Amphipoda is meagre, comprising specimens of one species from the Lower Cretaceous (Hauterivian) Weald Clay (United Kingdom){{Cite journal|author1=Edmund A. Jarzembowski |author2=Cédric Chény |author3=Yan Fang |author4=Bo Wang |year=2020 |title=First Mesozoic amphipod crustacean from the Lower Cretaceous of SE England |journal=Cretaceous Research |volume=112 |pages=Article 104429 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104429 |bibcode=2020CrRes.11204429J |s2cid=213609157 |url=https://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-02495739/document }} and 12 species dating back only as far as the Upper Eocene, where they have been found in Baltic amber.{{cite journal |title=A new terrestrial amphipod from tertiary amber deposits of Chiapas province, Southern Mexico |first1=E. L. |last1=Bousfield |first2=G. O. Jr. |last2=Poinar |doi=10.1080/10292389409380448 |journal=Historical Biology |volume=7 |issue=2 |year=1994 |pages=105–114|bibcode=1994HBio....7..105B }}The species Rosagammarus minichiellus from the considerably older Late Triassic Luning Formation of Nevada was originally described as an amphipod, but subsequently reinterpreted as the right half of a decapod tail (Starr, Hegna & McMenamin 2015, The Geological Society of America North-Central Section 49th Annual Meeting [https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2015NC/webprogram/Paper256121.html])

File:Talitrus saltator 2c.jpg is an abundant animal of sandy beaches around Europe.]]

File:Expl1152 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg relationship with a bamboo coral]]

Amphipods are found in almost all aquatic environments, from fresh water to water with twice the salinity of sea water and even in the Challenger Deep, the deepest known point in the ocean.{{cite web |author=National Geographic |title=James Cameron on Earth's Deepest Spot: Desolate, Lunar-Like |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/03/120326-james-cameron-mariana-trench-challenger-deepest-lunar-sub-science/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328064958/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/03/120326-james-cameron-mariana-trench-challenger-deepest-lunar-sub-science/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 28, 2012 |date=27 March 2012 |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=27 March 2012 }} They are almost always an important component of aquatic ecosystems,{{cite web |url=http://www.crustacea.net/crustace/amphipoda/index.htm |title=Introduction |work=Amphipoda: Families |first1=J. K. |last1=Lowry |first2=R. T. |last2=Springthorpe |publisher=Australian Museum |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221225649/http://crustacea.net/crustace/amphipoda/index.htm |archive-date=February 21, 2006 }} often acting as mesograzers.{{Cite journal |last1=Duffy |first1=J. E. |first2=Mark E. |last2=Hay |year=2000 |title=Strong impacts of grazing amphipods on the organization of a benthic community |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=237–263 |doi=10.1890/0012-9615(2000)070[0237:SIOGAO]2.0.CO;2|citeseerx=10.1.1.473.4746 |s2cid=54598097 }} Most species in the suborder Gammaridea are epibenthic, although they are often collected in plankton samples. Members of the Hyperiidea are all planktonic and marine. Many are symbionts of gelatinous animals, including salps, medusae, siphonophores, colonial radiolarians and ctenophores, and most hyperiids are associated with gelatinous animals during some part of their life cycle.{{cite journal |journal=Deep-Sea Research |year=1977 |volume=24 |pages=465–488 |title=The associations of Amphipoda Hyperiidea with gelatinous zooplankton. II. Associations with Cnidaria, Cteuophora and Radiolaria |first1=G. R. |last1=Harbison |first2=D. C. |last2=Biggs |first3=L. P. |last3=Madin |doi=10.1016/0146-6291(77)90484-2 |issue=5|bibcode=1977DSR....24..465H }} Some 1,900 species, or 20% of the total amphipod diversity, live in fresh water or other non-marine waters. Notably rich endemic amphipod faunas are found in the ancient Lake Baikal and waters of the Caspian Sea basin.{{cite journal |first1=R. |last1=Väinölä |first2=J. D. S. |last2=Witt |first3=M. |last3=Grabowski |first4=J. H. |last4=Bradbury |first5=K. |last5=Jazdzewski |first6=B. |last6=Sket |year=2008 |title=Global diversity of amphipods (Amphipoda, Crustacea) in freshwater |url=http://decapoda.nhm.org/pdfs/27701/27701.pdf |journal=Hydrobiologia |volume=595 |issue=1 |pages=241–255 |doi=10.1007/s10750-007-9020-6|s2cid=4662681 }}

The landhoppers of the family Talitridae (which also includes semi-terrestrial and marine animals) are terrestrial, living in damp environments such as leaf litter.{{cite web |url=http://soilbugs.massey.ac.nz/amphipoda.php |title=Amphipoda |work=Guide to New Zealand Soil Invertebrates |publisher=Massey University |access-date=April 7, 2010 |first1=M. A. |last1=Minor |first2=A. W. |last2=Robertson |date=March 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510121618/http://soilbugs.massey.ac.nz/amphipoda.php |archive-date=10 May 2010 |url-status=live}} Landhoppers have a wide distribution in areas that were formerly part of Gondwana, but have colonised parts of Europe and North America in recent times.

Around 750 species in 160 genera and 30 families are troglobitic, and are found in almost all suitable habitats, but with their centres of diversity in the Mediterranean Basin, southeastern North America and the Caribbean.{{cite book |chapter=Crustacea |first=Horton H. III |last=Hobbs |editor-first = John | editor-last = Gunn |title=Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |url=http://www.routledge-ny.com/ref/caves/crustacea.pdf |isbn=978-1-57958-399-6 |pages=254–257}}

In populations found in Benthic ecosystems, amphipods play an essential role in controlling brown algae growth. The mesograzer behaviour of amphipods greatly contributes to the suppression of brown algal dominance in the absence of amphipod predators. Amphipods display a strong preference for brown algae in Benthic ecosystems, but due to removal of mesograzers by predators such as fish, brown algae is able to dominate these communities over green and red algae species.

Compared to other crustacean groups, such as the Isopoda, Rhizocephala or Copepoda, relatively few amphipods are parasitic on other animals. The most notable example of parasitic amphipods are the whale lice (family Cyamidae). Unlike other amphipods, these are dorso-ventrally flattened, and have large, strong claws, with which they attach themselves to baleen whales. They are the only parasitic crustaceans which cannot swim during any part of their life cycle.{{cite web|url=http://web.viu.ca/goatert/PARASITE/PARAMPH.HTM |title=Parasitic Amphipoda |publisher=Vancouver Island University |access-date=April 7, 2010 |date=May 4, 1996 |first=Tim |last=Goater |work=Interactive Parasitology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714173551/http://web.viu.ca/goatert/PARASITE/PARAMPH.HTM |archive-date=July 14, 2010 }}

Most amphipods are detritivores or scavengers, with some being grazers of algae, omnivores or predators of small insects and crustaceans. Food is grasped with the front two pairs of legs, which are armed with large claws. More immobile species of amphipods eat higher quantities of less nutritious food rather than actively seeking more nutritious food. This is a type of compensatory feeding. This behaviour may have evolved to minimise predation risk when searching for other foods. Ampithoe longimana, for example, is more sedentary than other species and have been observed to remain on host plants longer. In fact, when presented with both high- and low-nutrition food options, the sedentary species Ampithoe longimana does not distinguish between the two options. Other amphipod species, such as Gammarus mucronatus and Elasmopus levis, which have superior predator avoidance and are more mobile, are better able to pursue different food sources.{{Cite journal |last1=Cruz-Rivera |first1=Edwin |first2=Mark E. |last2=Hay |year=2000 |title=Can quantity replace quality? Food choice, compensatory feeding, and fitness of marine mesograzers |journal=Ecology |volume=81 |pages=201–219 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0201:CQRQFC]2.0.CO;2|hdl=1853/36755 |hdl-access=free }} In species without the compensatory feeding ability, survivorship, fertility, and growth can be strongly negatively affected in the absence of high-quality food. Compensatory feeding may also explain the year-round presence of A. longimana in certain waters.{{Cite journal |last1=Cruz-Rivera |first1=Edwin |first2=Mark E. |last2=Hay |year=2001 |title=Macroalgal traits and the feeding and fitness of an herbivorous amphipod: the roles of selectivity, mixing, and compensation |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=218 |pages=249–266 |url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v218/p249-266/ |doi=10.3354/meps218249|bibcode=2001MEPS..218..249C |doi-access=free |hdl=1853/34241 |hdl-access=free }} Because algal presence changes throughout the year in certain communities, the evolution of flexible feeding techniques such as compensatory feeding may have been beneficial to survival.

Ampithoe longimana has been observed to avoid certain compounds when foraging for food. In response to this avoidance, species of seaweed such as Dictyopteris membranacea or Dictyopteris hoytii have evolved to produce C₁₁ sulfur compounds and C-9 oxo-acids in their bodies as defense mechanisms that specifically deter amphipods instead of deterrence to consumption by other predators.{{Cite journal |last1=Schnitzler |first1=Iris |first2=Georg |last2=Pohnert |first3=Mark |last3=Hay |first4=Wilhelm |last4=Boland |year=2001 |title=Chemical defense of brown algae (Dictyopteris spp.) against the herbivorous amphipod Ampithoe longimana |journal=Oecologia |volume=126 |issue=4 |pages=515–521 |doi=10.1007/s004420000546|pmid=28547236 |bibcode=2001Oecol.126..515S |s2cid=12281845 }}

The incidence of cannibalism and intraguild predation is relatively high in some species,{{cite journal |first=Jaimie T. A. |last=Dick |year=1995 |title=The cannibalistic behaviour of two Gammarus species (Crustacea: Amphipoda) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=236 |issue=4 |pages=697–706 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb02740.x}} although adults may decrease cannibalistic behaviour directed at juveniles when they are likely to encounter their own offspring.{{cite journal |first1=Susan E. |last1=Lewis |first2=Jaimie T. A. |last2=Dick |first3=Erin K. |last3=Lagerstrom |first4=Hazel C. |last4=Clarke |year=2010 |title=Avoidance of filial cannibalism in the amphipod Gammarus pulex |journal=Ethology |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=138–146 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2009.01726.x|bibcode=2010Ethol.116..138L }} In addition to age, sex may affect cannibalistic behaviour as males cannibalised newly moulted females less than males.

They have, rarely, been identified as feeding on humans; in Melbourne in 2017 a boy who stood in the sea for about half an hour had severe bleeding from wounds on his legs that did not coagulate easily. This was found to have been caused by "sea fleas" identified as lysianassid amphipods, possibly in a feeding group. Their bites are not venomous and do not cause lasting damage.{{Cite news |last=Zhou |first=Naaman |date=2017-08-08 |title=Australian teen just 'unfortunate' to be attacked by meat-loving sea fleas |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/08/australian-teen-just-unfortunate-to-be-attacked-by-meat-loving-sea-fleas |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |access-date=2024-01-22}}

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Category:Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille