Assiniboine language

The Dakotan group of the Siouan family has five main divisions: Dakota (Santee-Sisseton), Dakota (Yankton-Yanktonai), Lakota (Teton), Nakoda (Assiniboine) and Nakoda (Stoney).{{sfn|Parks|DeMallie|1992}}Miller, D., Smith, D., McGeshick, J. R., Shanley, J., & Shields, C. (2008). The History of the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Montana, 1800-2000. Montana: Montana Historical Society Press. Along with the closely related Stoney, Assiniboine is an n variety of the Dakotan languages, meaning its autonym is pronounced with an initial n (thus: {{Lang|asb|Nakʰóta}} as opposed to Dakʰóta or Lakʰóta, and {{Lang|asb|Nakʰóda}} or {{Lang|asb|Nakʰóna}} as opposed to {{Lang|dak|Dakʰód}} or {{Lang|lkt|Lakʰól}}). The Assiniboine language is also closely related to the Sioux language and to the Stoney language (likewise called Nakoda or Nakota), although they are hardly mutually intelligible.File:The Family Tree.png

The Assiniboine language (Nakota), the Dakota language and the Lakota language are usually classified into a group with D-N-L subgroup classification. As suggested by the name of the system, the variation in pronunciations of certain words follows the D-N-L rule. A typical example is given below:{{sfn|Parks|DeMallie|1992}}

Santee-Sisseton and Yankton-Yanktonai are languages that belong to the Dakotan group and Teton is a language in the Lakotan group. The table above illustrates a typical variation amongst these three languages. Just as the name of these three tribes suggest, the Dakota language, the Lakota language and the Nakota (Assiniboine) language have respective inclinations towards {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/l/}}, and {{IPA|/n/}} in some substitutable consonants.

Some scholars argue that the D-N-L classification system may not be totally accurate due to the non-rigidness of the substitution form.{{sfn|Parks|DeMallie|1992}} Siouan Indians live on an expansive continuum such that the distinction between different languages does not manifest in a rigid, clear-cutting criterion. Historically, linguists have debated on Yankton-Yanktonai languages and their proper positions into the D-N-L classification system, but the coexistence of {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} phonemes made such classification doubtful. This example of lexical difference between the languages of the Siouan group illustrates another possible distinction besides the D-N-L variations.{{sfn|Parks|DeMallie|1992}}

Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney are closely related languages of the Dakota family. Many linguists consider Assiniboine and Stoney to be dialects. However, they are mutually unintelligible. Parks and DeMallie report that they are not variant forms of a single dialect, but that Assiniboine is closer to the Sioux dialects than it is to Stoney. The exact number of interrelationships among the subdialects and dialects comprising this continuum is unknown.{{sfn|Parks|DeMallie|1992}}

The languages of the Dakotan group are spoken in the following regions:

• Canada
• Alberta
• Manitoba
• Saskatchewan
• United States
• Minnesota
• Montana
• Nebraska
• North Dakota
• South Dakota

The Assiniboine language is not a government-recognized official language of any state or region where Assiniboine people live. There are two reservations located in Montana, but the official language of the state is English.{{Cite web|url=http://leg.mt.gov/bills/mca/1/1/1-1-510.htm|title=1-1-510. English as official and primary language of state and local governments.|last=Services|first=Dale Matheson, Montana Legislative|website=leg.mt.gov|access-date=2017-09-26}} An estimate of native speakers ranges from less than 50,{{sfn|West|2003}} to about 100,{{sfn|Cumberland|2005}} to about 150 Assiniboine people, most of them elderly.[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/asb Ethnologue] (cf. above). A 2021 study of Indigenous languages in Canada put Assiniboine at 350 speakers.{{cite web | last=Robertson | first=Henry | title=Indigenous languages in Canada, 2021 | website=Statistics Canada | date=March 29, 2023 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2023029-eng.htm | access-date=August 4, 2024}}

The phonemic inventory has 27 consonants, which includes aspirated, plain, and ejective stops. In addition to this, it has five oral vowels and three nasal vowels. It is a structure-preserving language. Assiniboine has no definite or indefinite articles, no nominal case system, and no verbal tense marking. Clauses unmarked are "realized," while clauses marked as "potential" by means of verbal enclitic, which is successful in producing a future/non-future distinction. The verbal system is split into active and stative (split-intransitive). The active object pronominal affixes coincide with the stative verbs of the subject pronominal affixes.{{sfn|Cumberland|2005}}

The affricates and stops of Assiniboine are often described as voiced rather than voiceless, due to intervocalic voicing rules which result in surface voiced forms.{{sfn|Cumberland|2005}}

There are five oral vowels in Assiniboine, {{IPA|/i u e o a/}}, and three nasal vowels, {{IPA|/ĩ ũ ã/}}.{{sfn|Cumberland|2005}}

Words that follow the above rules:

• {{IPA|/bahá/|lang=asb}} 'hill'
• {{IPA|/pahá/|lang=asb}} 'hair'
• {{IPA|/čupó/|lang=asb}} 'fog'
• {{IPA|/ptą/|lang=asb}} 'otter'
• {{IPA|/pka/|lang=asb}} 'heavy'
• {{IPA|/psi/|lang=asb}} 'rice'
• {{IPA|/pša/|lang=asb}} 'to sneeze'

{{Cite journal |last=Hollow |first=Robert C. |date=1970 |title=A Note on Assiniboine Phonology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1264256 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=296–298 |issn=0020-7071}}

Syllables are primarily of CV structure. While codas are possible, they are restricted and uncommon, often becoming restructured as the onset of the following syllable. Onsets may include up to two consonants but codas must be simplex. Possible onset clusters are given in the following table:Reproduced from {{harvtxt|Cumberland|2005}}.

Morphological processes for Assiniboine language are primarily agglutinating.{{sfn|Cumberland|2005}} In addition, the character of morpheme alternation in Assiniboine may be classified in terms of phoneme loss, phoneme shift, contraction, nasalization loss, syllable loss, syntactic contraction, and syntactic alternation.Levin, N. B. (1964).The Assiniboine language. Bloomington: Indiana University.

Examples from Levin (1964).

Contraction->When two syllabics come into contact they contract as in:

;{{IPA|/a/}}+{{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/i/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|ápa + íyapi > ápayapi

|morning + {they go} > {they stayed awake until morning}|lang=asb}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|nakóta + iápi > nakótiapi

|ally + {they speak} > {a little Indian (to speak)}|lang=asb}}

;{{IPA|/i/}}+{{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/i/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|ohómini + íyapi > {(a) óhominiyapi}

|circle + {they go} > {they circle}|lang=asb}}

;{{IPA|/a/}}+{{IPA|/u/}} > {{IPA|/u/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|wicá + úkkupica > wicúkkupica

|them + {we give} > {we give them}|lang=asb}}

Phoneme loss: Syllabics

when {{IPA|/a/}} is in medial position between {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/h/}}:

;{{IPA|/a/}}> {{IPA|/∅/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|waníyaka + hi > waníyakshi

|{to see you} + {he comes} > {he came to see you}|lang=asb}}

when {{IPA|/o/}} is in the medial position between {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/k/}}:

;{{IPA|/o/}}>{{IPA|/∅/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|ukíce + okáxniga > ukícaxnigapi

|{we ourselves} + {to understand} > {we understand each other}|lang=asb}}

when {{IPA|/e/}} is in medial position between {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}}:

;{{IPA|/e/}}>{{IPA|/Φ/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|napé + kóza > napkóza

|hand + {to wave} > {to beckon}|lang=asb}}

Phoneme loss: semi-syllabics

;{{IPA|/y/}} > {{IPA|/∅/}} when:

;{{IPA|/y/}} follows {{IPA|/n/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|mn + yuhá > mnuhá

|I + {to have} > {I have}|lang=asb}}

Phoneme loss: non-syllabics

{{IPA|/k/}} is in medial position between {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/h/}} or {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} or {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/y/}}

;{{IPA|/k/}} > {{IPA|/∅/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|uk + kágapi > ukágapi

|we + {they make} > {we make}|lang=asb}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|uk + ya + naxú > nauyaxúpi

|we + you + {to hear} > {you hear us}|lang=asb}}

Phoneme shift: syllabics

;{{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} before {{IPA|/n/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|awáci + ni > awácani

|{to think} + you > {you think}|lang=asb}}

Phoneme shift: non-syllabics

When {{IPA|/a/}}--{{IPA|/e/}} is in medial position between {{IPA|/g/}} and {{IPA|/š/}}

;{{IPA|/g/}} > {{IPA|/x/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|okáxnige + -ši > owákaxnixeši

|{to understand} + -NEG > {I don't understand}|lang=asb}}

When {{IPA|/a/}}--{{IPA|/e/}} is in medial position between {{IPA|/g/}} and {{IPA|/c/}}

;{{IPA|/g/}} > {{IPA|/x/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|okáxniga + -ce + wa > owákaxnixace

|{to understand} + -ITER + I > {I understand}|lang=asb}}

When {{IPA|/g/}} is in medial position between {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/y/}}

;{{IPA|/g/}} > {{IPA|/x/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|icáge + -ya > icáxya

|{to grow} + -CAUS > {to cause to grow}|lang=asb}}

Nasalization loss exists as follows:

;{{IPA|/ą/}} > {{IPA|/a/}}

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|mázą + ska > mazáska

|iron + white > money|lang=asb}}

Syllable loss occurs as follows:

:{{IPA|/ye/}} > {{IPA|/Φ/}} Ex) {{Lang|asb|iyópe... ye}} 'to pay' so, {{Lang|asb|iyópe}} + {{Lang|asb|wa}} + {{Lang|asb|ye}} > {{Lang|asb|iyópewa}} 'I pay'

Syntactic contraction: personal inflectional morphemes

;{{Lang|asb|wa}} 'I' + {{Lang|asb|ni}} 'you' > {{Lang|asb|ci}} 'I...you';

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|kku + ci + -kta > cicúta

|{to give} + {I... you} + -FUT > {I will give you}|lang=asb}}

Syntactic contraction with verbal themes occurs as follows:

;{{IPA|/i/}} + {{IPA|/k/}} – {{IPA|/kk/}} > c;

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|i + kahíta > icáhita

|{with something} + {to sweep} > broom|lang=asb}}

Syntactic alternation

;{{IPA|/a/}} > {{IPA|/e/}} in verbal theme

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|wamnáka > wamnáke

|{I saw} > {I saw}|lang=asb}}

;{{IPA|/a/}}>{{IPA|/e/}} in nomial theme

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|skúya > skúye

|sweet > sweet|lang=asb}}

;{{IPA|/a/}}>{{IPA|/e/}} with the future suffix;

{{interlinear|number= ex)

|wicákkupikta > wicákkupikte

|{they will be given} > {they will be given}|lang=asb}}

Assiniboine has SOV word order. The order of elements may differ from canonical SOV; this is not free nor scrambling word order, but instead, the result of topicalization or other movements. Out-of-context sentences are always interpreted as SOV order even if it sounds odd. For example, 'the man bit the dog', unless an element is moved into a focus position. Focused element sentences are highly marked, and practically, a strange semantic reading is preferred over an interpretation of OSV. For example, the following sentence was interpreted as 'A banana ate the boy' by a native speaker, and to get the OSV reading out of it the object must be stressed, for example if the sentence was given as a reply to the question 'What did the boy eat?'.{{sfn|West|2003|pp=48–49}}

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=asb

|škóškobena wãži hokšína že yúda.

|banana a boy DET ate

|'A banana ate the boy.' (or 'The boy ate a banana.')}}Class 1

: {{Lang|asb|wa-}} 1st person+singular

: {{Lang|asb|ya-}} 2nd person

Class 2

: {{Lang|asb|ma-}} 1st person+singular

: {{Lang|asb|ni-}} 2nd person

For both class 1 and 2

: {{Lang|asb|ũ-}} 1st person-singular

: {{Lang|asb|o-}} 3rd person

: {{Lang|asb|wica-}} 3rd person

: {{Lang|asb|ci-}} 1st person + singular subject/ 2nd person object{{sfn|West|2003}}

1. {{Lang|asb|wąži}} – one
2. {{Lang|asb|nųba}} – two
3. {{Lang|asb|yamni}} – three
4. {{Lang|asb|tópa}} – four
5. {{Lang|asb|záptą}} – five
6. {{Lang|asb|šákpe}} – six
7. {{Lang|asb|iyušna}} – seven
8. {{Lang|asb|šaknoğą}} – eight
9. {{Lang|asb|napcuwąga}} – nine
10. {{Lang|asb|wikcémna}} – ten
11. {{Lang|asb|saba}} – black
12. {{Lang|asb|ska}} – white
13. {{Lang|asb|ša}} – red
14. {{Lang|asb|to}} – blue

More words can be found in the Dakota-English Dictionary.Riggs, S. R. (1892). A Dakota-English Dictionary. Washington: US Government Printing

{{reflist|group=cn}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{Cite book|title=A grammar of Assiniboine: a Siouan language of the Northern Plains|last=Cumberland|first=Linda|publisher=Indiana University|year=2005|type=Ph.D. Thesis}}
• {{Cite journal|last=Parks|first=Douglas R.|last2=DeMallie|first2=Raymond J.|date=1992|title=Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney Dialects: A Classification|jstor=30028376|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=34|issue=1/4|pages=233–255}}
• {{Cite book|title=Subjects and Objects in Assiniboine Nakoda|last=West|first=Shannon L.|publisher=University of Victoria|year=2003|hdl=1828/371|type=Doctoral dissertation}}

{{incubator|asb}}

• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7o1X1tBgaw A video of Fred Spyglass (Mosquito First Nation) counting]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRKuIxgaOn8 Video on Assiniboine history]
• [http://www.languagegeek.com/siouan/nakoda_assiniboine.html Language Geek:Assiniboine]
• [http://www.native-languages.org/assiniboine.htm Native Languages: Assiniboine]
• [http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/ Online dictionary of Assniboine], American Indian Studies Research Institute

{{Siouan languages}}

{{Languages of Montana}}

Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains

Category:First Nations languages in Canada

Category:Endangered languages of the United States

Category:Endangered Indigenous languages of the Americas

Category:Western Siouan languages

Category:Indigenous languages of Montana