Baby bottle#History

File:Infant drinks milk from bottle.jpg drinking milk from a bottle]]

A typical baby bottle typically has four components: the first is the main container or body of the bottle. A teat, or nipple, is the flexible part of the bottle that the baby will suck from, and contains a hole through which the milk will flow. The collar goes over the nipple and typically screws onto the neck of the bottle, forming a seal. Most, but not all baby bottles will also have a cap or travel cover that goes over the teat to keep it clean and to prevent small spills.{{Cite news|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/healthychildcare/infantfeeding/cleansanitize.html/|title=How to Clean, Sanitize, and Store Infant Feeding Items|date=2018-10-31|work=CDC.gov|access-date=2020-05-22|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614104440/https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/healthychildcare/infantfeeding/cleansanitize.html|url-status=live}} Some bottles may optionally have a disposable liner.

Design concerns for the making of baby bottles often reflect safety or comfort.

A safe baby bottle should not break, should not come apart easily into small or potentially harmful components, should not be made of materials that pose a health risk, and should be easy to clean so as to avoid bacterial contamination and illness.{{cite web |title=Chicco Launches The First Hybrid Baby Bottle Ever |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/chicco-launches-the-first-hybrid-baby-bottle-ever-301281320.html |website=CISION |date=April 30, 2021 |access-date=18 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218020722/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/chicco-launches-the-first-hybrid-baby-bottle-ever-301281320.html |url-status=live }}

A bottle should also be comfortable for both caregiver and baby to use. Bottles that are lightweight and easy to hold can be desired by both babies and mothers. A variety of shapes are available. The design of containers, nipples or teats may mimic the shape of the mother's breast. Designers may try to mimic the flow rate of breastfeeding: the baby should be able to get enough nourishment, but at the same time not be overwhelmed or overfed.{{cite journal |last1=Jenik |first1=Alejandro |last2=Fustiñana |first2=Carlos |last3=Marquez |first3=Maritza |last4=Mage |first4=David |last5=Fernandez |first5=Gloria |last6=Mariani |first6=Gonzalo |title=A New Bottle Design Decreases Hypoxemic Episodes during Feeding in Preterm Infants |journal=International Journal of Pediatrics |date=2012 |volume=2012 |page=531608 |doi=10.1155/2012/531608 |pmid=22778757 |pmc=3385645 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Jeanne |last2=Clarke |first2=Sally |last3=Escott |first3=Catherine |last4=Pados |first4=Britt Frisk |title=Assessing the flow rate of different bottles and teats for neonates with feeding difficulties: An Australian context |journal=Journal of Neonatal Nursing |date=1 August 2021 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=285–290 |doi=10.1016/j.jnn.2020.11.014 |s2cid=229484424 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnn.2020.11.014 |access-date=20 December 2021 |language=en |issn=1355-1841}}{{cite journal |last1=Pados |first1=Britt F. |last2=Park |first2=Jinhee |last3=Thoyre |first3=Suzanne M. |last4=Estrem |first4=Hayley |last5=Nix |first5=W. Brant |title=Milk Flow Rates From Bottle Nipples Used for Feeding Infants Who Are Hospitalized |journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology |date=November 2015 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=671–679 |doi=10.1044/2015_AJSLP-15-0011 |pmid=26172340 |pmc=4698468 |issn=1058-0360}}

Over time a wide variety of materials have been used for infant feeding vessels (see History). The materials now most commonly used in baby bottle containers are glass and some types of plastics. Food-grade stainless steel and silicone rubber are also used. Each of these four materials—plastic, glass, silicone and stainless steel—has advantages and disadvantages. The standard materials used in teats/nipples are latex rubber and silicone.{{cite web |last1=Layton |first1=Vanessa |title=Baby Bottle Teats: What's the Difference Between Latex & Silicone? |url=https://hellocharlie.com.au/blogs/eco-baby-amp-kids/baby-bottle-teats-whats-the-difference-between-latex-silicone |website=Hello Charlie |date=January 2019 |access-date=20 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220155429/https://hellocharlie.com.au/blogs/eco-baby-amp-kids/baby-bottle-teats-whats-the-difference-between-latex-silicone |url-status=live }}

A number of countries have regulations about allowable food contact materials. Ideally, the material making up the bottle should react as little as possible with the material in the bottle. No material is completely inert, but glass and stainless steel are relatively neutral materials which tend to remain stable and not interact with foods. The disadvantages of glass are that it tends to be heavy and can break more easily.{{cite web |title=Using Glass Baby Bottles – Pros and Cons |url=https://amumreviews.co.uk/using-glass-baby-bottles-pros-and-cons/ |website=A Mum Reviews |access-date=17 December 2021 |date=27 July 2015 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217023555/https://amumreviews.co.uk/using-glass-baby-bottles-pros-and-cons/ |url-status=live }}

Plastics are lightweight and resistant to breaking. Manufacturers find them easy to form into a variety of shapes.{{cite web |title=Guide to Manufacturing Processes for Plastics |url=https://formlabs.com/blog/guide-to-manufacturing-processes-for-plastics/ |website=Formlabs |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217024453/https://formlabs.com/blog/guide-to-manufacturing-processes-for-plastics/ |url-status=live }} A wide variety of plastics have been developed, some of which are not well understood in terms of reactivity. Some plastics have been found to be reactive with fluids such as breast milk and infant formula. Chemicals such as Bisphenol A (BPA) may "leach" from a bottle into the substance it holds. In addition, plastics may be more likely to break down when heated or cooled, for example, when being heated in a microwave or being boiled to sterilize them.{{cite journal |last1=Pant |first1=Mahendra K. |last2=Ahmad |first2=Abul H. |last3=Naithani |first3=Manisha |last4=Pandey |first4=Hari S. |last5=Pandey |first5=Monika |last6=Pant |first6=Jayanti |title=Effect of Exposure of Plastic Infant Feeding Bottle Leached Water on Biochemical, Morphological and Oxidative Stress Parameters in Rats |journal=Toxics |date=13 May 2020 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=34 |doi=10.3390/toxics8020034 |pmid=32414073 |pmc=7355934 |issn=2305-6304|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Toxic...8...34P }}{{cite web |title=Baby's Toxic Bottle |url=https://www.cleanwateraction.org/files/publications/national/babystoxicbottle-final.pdf |website=The Work Group for Safe Markets (U.S.) |access-date=18 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208200809/https://www.cleanwateraction.org/files/publications/national/babystoxicbottle-final.pdf |url-status=dead }}

Polycarbonate plastic was frequently used in baby bottles before 2011, and is still used in some countries.{{cite journal |last1=Bashir |first1=A. B. |last2=Audu |first2=A. A. |title=Extraction and Quantification of Bisphenol-A Level in Infant Polycarbonate Feeding Bottles using High Performance Liquid Chromatography Technique |journal=ChemSearch Journal |date=2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=34–40 |url=https://www.ajol.info//index.php/csj |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217021550/https://www.ajol.info//index.php/csj |url-status=live }} Polycarbonates contain Bisphenol A.{{cite web |title=Bisphenol A |url=https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/chemicals/bisphenol_a/ |website=New York State Department of Health |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217021555/https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/chemicals/bisphenol_a/ |url-status=live }} Since 2008, at least 40 countries have banned the use of plastics containing Bisphenol A in baby bottles due to safety concerns (see Regulation). Bottles made of polycarbonate may be marked as "#7 PC".{{cite web |title=Protect your baby from BPA (Bisphenol A) |url=https://www.mass.gov/info-details/protect-your-baby-from-bpa-bisphenol-a |website=Commonwealth of Massachusetts |date=2021 |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217022329/https://www.mass.gov/info-details/protect-your-baby-from-bpa-bisphenol-a |url-status=live }}

Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) have been used as substitutes for BPA. They are structurally similar. Comparisons of BPA, BPS and BPF have found that these chemicals have similar potency and action to BPA and may pose similar dangers in terms of endocrine-disrupting effects.{{cite journal |last1=Rochester |first1=Johanna R. |last2=Bolden |first2=Ashley L. |title=Bisphenol S and F: A Systematic Review and Comparison of the Hormonal Activity of Bisphenol A Substitutes |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=July 2015 |volume=123 |issue=7 |pages=643–650 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1408989 |pmid=25775505 |pmc=4492270 |bibcode=2015EnvHP.123..643R |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408989 |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=en |issn=0091-6765}} This has led to criticisms of the chemical industry{{cite journal |last1=Ben-Jonathan |first1=Nira |last2=Hugo |first2=Eric R. |title=Bisphenols Come in Different Flavors: Is "S" Better Than "A"? |journal=Endocrinology |date=1 January 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=1 |pages=23–25 |doi=10.1210/en.2016-1120 |pmid=27035769 |pmc=4816743 |quote="The real issue is that the industry is replacing a toxic chemical with another, yet untested chemical, which will require large investments of research funds to carry out applicable studies"}} and for calls to deal with bisphenols in groups, not individually. In 2021, the Canadian government agencies Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) and Health Canada (HC) held consultations with the goal of grouping 343 known BPA analogs and functional alternatives.{{cite web |title=Canada proposes grouping BPA analogues, alternatives |url=https://www.foodpackagingforum.org/news/canada-proposes-grouping-bpa-analogues-alternatives |website=Food Packaging Forum |access-date=17 December 2021 |date=13 January 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217231518/https://www.foodpackagingforum.org/news/canada-proposes-grouping-bpa-analogues-alternatives |url-status=live }}

Polyethersulfone plastic (PES) does not contain BPA but does include Bisphenol S (BPS).{{cite web |author1=Agri-Food |author2=Veterinary Authority of Singapore |title=Safety of plastic baby bottles |url=https://www.sfa.gov.sg/food-for-thought/article/detail/safety-of-plastic-baby-bottles |website=Food for Thought |publisher=Singapore Government |access-date=17 December 2021 |date=27 Feb 2020 |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217231508/https://www.sfa.gov.sg/food-for-thought/article/detail/safety-of-plastic-baby-bottles |url-status=live }} An assessment of a variety of different baby bottles in use in 2016, reported 4 bottles to be of "high concern", 14 bottles to be of "concern"; and only 6 bottles to be of "no concern" These of "no concern" included two polyamide (PA) and two polyethersulfone (PES) bottles, a stainless steel bottle, and one of the 17 polypropylene (PP) bottles tested.{{cite web |last1=Groh |first1=Ksenia |title=Health risks of 'BPA-free' baby bottles {{!}} Food Packaging Forum |url=https://www.foodpackagingforum.org/news/health-risks-of-bpa-free-baby-bottles |website=Food Packaging Forum |access-date=18 December 2021 |date=9 September 2016 |archive-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218004849/https://www.foodpackagingforum.org/news/health-risks-of-bpa-free-baby-bottles |url-status=live }}

Phthalates, found in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), are another area of concern.{{cite news |last1=LaMotte |first1=Sandee |title=Chemicals in plastics damage babies' brains and must be banned, expert group says |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/20/health/baby-brain-damage-plastic-phthalates-wellness/index.html |access-date=17 December 2021 |work=CNN |date=February 20, 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217042234/https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/20/health/baby-brain-damage-plastic-phthalates-wellness/index.html |url-status=live }} Referred to as "everywhere chemicals" because they are so common, phthalates make plastic more flexible, and have been used in pacifiers and nipples or teats for bottles.{{cite web |title=Phthalates |url=https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/assets/docs/j_q/phthalates_the_everywhere_chemical_handout_508.pdf |website=Zero Breast Cancer |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905083227/https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/assets/docs/j_q/phthalates_the_everywhere_chemical_handout_508.pdf |url-status=live }} Phthalates have been banned from use in feeding bottles in the EU.{{cite web |last1=Mo |first1=Chuiyan |title=Baby Feeding Bottle Standards & Regulations in the EU: An Overview |url=https://www.compliancegate.com/baby-feeding-bottle-standards-european-union/ |website=Compliance Gate |access-date=20 December 2021 |date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220184845/https://www.compliancegate.com/baby-feeding-bottle-standards-european-union/ |url-status=live }} In the USA, there have been repeated calls for the removal of phthalates by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and others.{{cite web |title=Chemicals |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/Research--Statistics/Chemicals |website=U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217044341/https://www.cpsc.gov/Research--Statistics/Chemicals |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=CPSC Prohibits Certain Phthalates in Children's Toys and Child Care Products |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/content/cpsc-prohibits-certain-phthalates-in-children%E2%80%99s-toys-and-child-care-products |website=U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217035612/https://www.cpsc.gov/content/cpsc-prohibits-certain-phthalates-in-children%E2%80%99s-toys-and-child-care-products |url-status=live }} Their use in children's toys and products was somewhat restricted by the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008.{{cite web |title=Phthalates Were Removed from Babies' Toys in U.S., but Infants Still Get Them in Excess from Foods |url=https://babycarejournals.com/phthalates-removed-babies-toys-u-s-infants-still-get-excess-foods/ |website=Baby Care Journals |access-date=17 December 2021 |date=29 July 2014 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217035613/https://babycarejournals.com/phthalates-removed-babies-toys-u-s-infants-still-get-excess-foods/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Gretchen |title=Phthalates: What you need to know |url=https://www.babycenter.com/health/safety-and-childproofing/phthalates-what-you-need-to-know_3647067 |website=BabyCenter |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119174852/https://www.babycenter.com/health/safety-and-childproofing/phthalates-what-you-need-to-know_3647067 |url-status=usurped }} Plastics labeled #3 may leach phthalates. Latex rubber nipples may contain phthalates, so silicone nipples may be recommended instead. Packaging may indicate whether a product is "BPA-free" or "phthalate-free".{{cite web |title=BPA and phthalates |url=https://health.westchestergov.com/bisphenol-a-and-phthalates |website=Westchester County Department of Health |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217035613/https://health.westchestergov.com/bisphenol-a-and-phthalates |url-status=live }}

Plastics may degrade over time in other ways, There are concerns that small beads of plastic may be released into fluids from some types of plastic bottles.{{cite journal |last1=Kannan |first1=Kurunthachalam |last2=Vimalkumar |first2=Krishnamoorthi |title=A Review of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Insights Into Microplastics as Obesogens |journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology |date=2021 |volume=12 |pages=978 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.724989 |pmid=34484127 |pmc=8416353 |issn=1664-2392|doi-access=free }} In 2020 researchers reported that infant feeding bottles made out of polypropylene caused microplastics exposure{{Broken anchor|date=2024-12-16|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=microplastics#Humans|reason= The anchor (Humans) has been deleted.}} to infants ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per capita per day in 48 regions with contemporary preparation procedures. Microplastics release is higher with warmer liquids and similar with other polypropylene products such as lunchboxes.{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Bottle-fed babies swallow millions of microplastics a day, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/19/bottle-fed-babies-swallow-millions-microplastics-day-study |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109035524/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/19/bottle-fed-babies-swallow-millions-microplastics-day-study |url-status=live }}{{cite news |author=Trinity College Dublin |date=October 19, 2020 |title=High levels of microplastics released from infant feeding bottles during formula prep |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-high-microplastics-infant-bottles-formula.html |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235701/https://phys.org/news/2020-10-high-microplastics-infant-bottles-formula.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Dunzhu |last2=Shi |first2=Yunhong |last3=Yang |first3=Luming |last4=Xiao |first4=Liwen |last5=Kehoe |first5=Daniel K. |last6=Gun'ko |first6=Yurii K. |last7=Boland |first7=John J. |last8=Wang |first8=Jing Jing |title=Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation |journal=Nature Food |date=November 2020 |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=746–754 |doi=10.1038/s43016-020-00171-y |pmid=37128027 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-00171-y |access-date=9 November 2020 |language=en |issn=2662-1355 |hdl=2262/94127 |s2cid=228978799 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102190257/https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-00171-y |url-status=live }} In 2022, the first study to examine the presence of plastic polymers in human blood found plastics of multiple types in the blood samples of 17 out of 22 healthy adults tested (nearly 80%).{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=2022-03-24 |title=Microplastics found in human blood for first time |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/mar/24/microplastics-found-in-human-blood-for-first-time |access-date=2025-04-02 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}{{cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Heather A. |last2=J. M. van Velzen |first2=Martin |last3=Brandsma |first3=Sicco H. |last4=Vethaak |first4=Dick |last5=Garcia-Vallejo |first5=Juan J. |last6=Lamoree |first6=Marja H. |title=Discovery and quantification of plastic particle pollution in human blood |journal=Environment International |date=24 March 2022 |volume=163 |pages=107199 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2022.107199 |pmid=35367073 |s2cid=247688966 |language=en |issn=0160-4120|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022EnInt.16307199L }} Medical experts have suggested reducing exposure to microplastics by not shaking plastic bottles or exposing them to high temperatures. Some recommend using alternative materials such as glass, silicone, or stainless steel.{{cite web |title=Are Plastic Baby Bottles Safe? |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/are-plastic-baby-bottles-safe/ |website=Cleveland Clinic |date=16 November 2020 |access-date=2 December 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202175625/https://health.clevelandclinic.org/are-plastic-baby-bottles-safe/ |url-status=live }}

File:Silicone Baby Bottle Nipples.jpg

Baby bottle nipples (also called teats) are typically made from either silicone or latex rubber. When used for nipples, silicone is clear, durable, and slightly harder than latex. Natural rubber latex teats are elastic, tear resistant, and may feel softer. Latex can absorb odors, while silicone does not. Latex can break down if exposed to sunlight. Some people have allergies to latex.

Bottles tend to come in standard sizes, often

{{convert|4|USoz|ml}} and {{convert|8|USoz|ml}}.

Smaller bottles may be lighter and easier to hold and are often used with younger, smaller infants. There are concerns that larger bottles may lead to over-feeding, since parents are likely to encourage a baby to "finish" a bottle during a feeding.

The height-to-width ratio of bottles is high (relative to adult cups) because it is needed to ensure the contents flood the teat when used at normal angles; otherwise the baby will drink air. However, if the bottle is too tall, it easily tips. There are asymmetric bottles that ensure the contents flood the teat if the bottle is held at a certain direction.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

The shape of the bottle is related to both ease of use and ease of cleaning (see History). Designers sometimes suggest that naturalistic designs will mean that babies can transition between breast or bottle without issues.{{cite web |last1=Hua |first1=Vanessa |title=Building a Better Baby Bottle |url=https://medium.com/re-form/building-a-better-baby-bottle-3749e98e5837 |website=re:form |access-date=18 December 2021 |language=en |date=23 September 2014 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214155348/https://medium.com/re-form/building-a-better-baby-bottle-3749e98e5837 |url-status=live }} Other bottles have been invented with unique shapes designed to speed up the warming and cooling of breast milk, saving time, reducing bacterial growth, and reducing exposure to temperatures that can damage the nutrients in breast milk.{{cite web |last1=Kavilanz |first1=Parija |title=A tired dad and his hungry infant led to a radical new baby bottle |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/10/25/success/nanobebe-startup-fresh-money/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=6 January 2022 |date=26 October 2018 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107040826/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/10/25/success/nanobebe-startup-fresh-money/index.html |url-status=live }}

"Anti-colic" bottles have been put forward with the goal of reducing "gassiness" and distress when feeding. Designs often seek to minimize the sucking in of air by the baby while feeding. Some bottles try to minimize the mixing of air into the milk within the bottle. At the same time, it is desirable to avoid creating an internal vacuum as the infant sucks out fluids, since this will make it harder to feed. Designs may rely on the bottle's shape or incorporate different types of "venting".{{cite journal |last1=Amereh |first1=Meitham |last2=Kheiri |first2=Sina |last3=Kim |first3=Keekyoung |last4=Li |first4=Ri |last5=Akbari |first5=Mohsen |title=A New Venting Valve for Anti-colic Nursing Bottles |journal=CMBES Proceedings |date=11 May 2021 |volume=44 |url=https://proceedings.cmbes.ca/index.php/proceedings/article/view/917/909 |access-date=20 December 2021 |language=en |issn=2371-9516 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220145703/https://proceedings.cmbes.ca/index.php/proceedings/article/view/917/909 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Craig E. |last2=Magnuson |first2=Bengt |title=On the physics of the infant feeding bottle and middle ear sequela: Ear disease in infants can be associated with bottle feeding |journal=International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology |date=August 2000 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1016/S0165-5876(00)00330-X |pmid=10960691 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12360670 |access-date=20 December 2021}}

File:Anty-colic bottle.jpg" bottle.]]

Some vented bottles, as well as bottles which use a collapsible liner collapses as the formula is drained, have been assessed favorably. They were reported to be comparable to a breastfeeding group in terms of milk intake, sucking patterns, and oxygenation.

A 2012 study comparing two types of vented bottles with anti-vacuum features found no differences in infant growth between randomized groups. "Bottle A", a partial anti-vacuum design, was rated by parents as easier to assemble and clean. Infants fed using "Bottle A" were reported to engage in less "fussing", but no difference were found in "crying" or "colic" or in rates of ear infection.{{cite journal |last1=Fewtrell |first1=MS |last2=Kennedy |first2=K. |last3=Nicholl |first3=R. |last4=Khakoo |first4=A. |last5=Lucas |first5=A. |title=Infant feeding bottle design, growth and behaviour: results from a randomised trial |journal=BMC Research Notes |date=16 March 2012 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=150 |doi=10.1186/1756-0500-5-150 |pmid=22424116 |pmc=3328286 |issn=1756-0500 |doi-access=free }} Health recommendations for the storage and handling of human milk typically focus on preventing the growth of dangerous bacteria, but some research is also being done on nutrition. Experimental studies have shown a degradation of retinol (Vitamin A) and α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) content dependent upon the formation of bubbles in expressed breast milk and in formula. Seven models of bottles were studied, from six companies. Less degradation occurred when using a bottle feeding system designed to minimize the mixing of air with the bottle's contents.{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Jimi |last2=Rogers |first2=Kristy |last3=Dickton |first3=Darby |last4=Twedt |first4=Roxanna |last5=Pardini |first5=Ron |title=Decreasing retinol and α-tocopherol concentrations in human milk and infant formula using varied bottle systems: Decreasing retinol and α-tocopherol in milk using varied bottle systems |journal=Maternal & Child Nutrition |date=April 2012 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=215–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1740-8709.2010.00279.x |pmid=21083843 |pmc=6860793 |language=en}}

Teat characteristics can also have important implications for infant's sucking pattern and milk intake. Milk flow rate is defined as "the rate at which milk moves from the bottle nipple into the infant's mouth during bottle-feeding." Characteristics such as the shape of the nipple and the way it is perforated may impact flow rate and the coordination of sucking, swallowing and breathing during feeding.

Unfortunately, categorization and labeling of teats to indicate flow rate is neither standardized nor consistent. There is significant variability between and within brands and models.{{cite journal |last1=Pados |first1=Britt Frisk |last2=Park |first2=Jinhee |last3=Thoyre |first3=Suzanne M. |last4=Estrem |first4=Hayley |last5=Nix |first5=W. Brant |title=Milk Flow Rates from bottle nipples used after hospital discharge |journal=MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing |date=July 2016 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=237–243 |doi=10.1097/NMC.0000000000000244 |pmid=27008466 |pmc=5033656 }} In one study, nipples labeled "Slow" or "Newborn" (0–3 months) had flow rates ranging from 1.68 mL/min to 15.12 mL/min."The name assigned to the nipple type does not provide clear information to parents attempting to choose a nipple". This may be of extra concern in the case of fragile infants. Specialized teats are available for infants with cleft palate.{{cite web |title=Feeding a Child with a Cleft Lip or Cleft Palate - Pediatric Cleft and Craniofacial Center - Golisano Children's Hospital - University of Rochester Medical Center |url=https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/childrens-hospital/craniofacial/feeding-cleft.aspx |website=Golisano Children's Hospital |publisher=University of Rochester Medical Center |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220181806/https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/childrens-hospital/craniofacial/feeding-cleft.aspx |url-status=live }}

Bottles may be designed to attach directly to a breast pump for a complete "feeding system" that maximizes the reuse of the components. Such systems include a variety of drinking spouts for when the child is older. This converts the bottle into a sippy cup, a cup with lid and spout for toddlers, which is intermediate between a baby bottle and an open top cup. Bottles that are part of a feeding system may include handles that can be attached. The ring and teat may be replaced by a storage lid.{{cite web |title =Baby Bottle Brands |url = https://glassbabybottle.com/baby-bottle-brands/ |website = glassbabybottle.com |access-date = 2025-03-05 |quote = Bottles may be designed to attach directly to a breast pump or turned into sippy cup. }}

Accessories for bottles include cleaning brushes, or bottle brushes, sterilizers, and drying racks. Brushes may be specially designed for a specific manufacturer's bottles and teats. Bottle sterilizers use different techniques for sterilization, including ultraviolet light, boiling water, and hot steam.

File:Flaschenwärmer.jpg

Bottle warmers warm previously made and refrigerated formula. Coolers designed to fit a specific manufacturer's bottles are available to keep refrigerated formula cold. Special formula powder containers are available to store pre-measured amounts of formula so that caregivers can pre-fill bottles with sterile water and mix in the powder easily. The containers are typically designed to stack together so that multiple pre-measured amounts of formula powder may be transported as a unit.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

Institutions can purchase ready-to-feed formula in containers that can be used as baby bottles.{{cite web|url=http://www.smanutrition.co.uk/sma-products/easy-feed-1957.aspx|title=Homepage|website=www.smanutrition.co.uk|access-date=2012-11-18|archive-date=2012-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108221837/http://www.smanutrition.co.uk/sma-products/easy-feed-1957.aspx|url-status=live}} The lid screws off and is replaced by a disposable teat when the formula is ready to be used. This avoids storing the formula with the teat and possibly clogging the teat holes when formula is splashed within the bottle and dries.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

Sterilization is a standard practice to prevent development of bacteria and resulting illness, that is more effective than sanitization. The Australian government and the United Kingdom's National Health Service guidelines recommend sterilization of baby bottles and other equipment either by using a cold water sterilizing solution such as by Milton sterilizing fluid, by steam sterilizing, or by boiling.{{cite web |title=Sterilising baby bottles |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/baby/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding/sterilising-baby-bottles/ |website=United Kingdom National Health Service |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en |date=7 December 2020 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214200053/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/baby/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding/sterilising-baby-bottles/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web|url=http://www.wch.sa.gov.au/services/az/other/nutrition/documents/bottlefeeding.pdf|title=Bottle Feeding|website=wch.sa.gov.au|publisher=Women's and Children's Hospital and Government of South Australia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423062853/http://www.wch.sa.gov.au/services/az/other/nutrition/documents/bottlefeeding.pdf|archive-date=2011-04-23|url-status=dead|access-date=2016-04-01}} Printed November 2008{{cite web |title=Why sterilisation is necessary |url=https://www.philips.com.au/consumerfiles/pageitems/locales/en_GB/CONSUMER/categorypages/AventFeeding/assets/download/11762-Prep%20for%20feeding_article_GB.pdf |website=Philips Australia |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301040503/https://www.philips.com.au/consumerfiles/pageitems/locales/en_GB/CONSUMER/categorypages/AventFeeding/assets/download/11762-Prep%20for%20feeding_article_GB.pdf |url-status=live }} It is important to clean and sterilize all parts of a bottle including containers, teats, and screw caps.{{cite web |title=Cleaning and sterilising baby bottles |url=https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/cleaning-and-sterilising-baby-bottles |website=www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au |publisher=Healthdirect Australia |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en-AU |date=24 May 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214200053/https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/cleaning-and-sterilising-baby-bottles |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Bottle-feeding: cleaning and sterilising equipment |url=https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/breastfeeding-bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding-equipment |website=Raising Children Network |publisher=Raising Children Network (Australia) Limited |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214200053/https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/breastfeeding-bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding/bottle-feeding-equipment |url-status=live }} The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suggests that it may be sufficient to clean bottles with soap and water, in a dishwasher or by hand.{{cite web |title=How to Clean, Sanitize, and Store Infant Feeding Items |url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/healthychildcare/infantfeeding/cleansanitize.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |publisher=United States Government |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en-us |date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214210114/https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/healthychildcare/infantfeeding/cleansanitize.html |url-status=live }} This recommendation is based on the assumption that water supplies are clean and sanitation standards are high.{{cite web |title=Should You Sterilize Your Baby's Bottles? |url=https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/should-you-sterilize-your-babys-bottles |website=WebMD |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214221559/https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/should-you-sterilize-your-babys-bottles |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |date=2023-07-31 |title=Máy tiệt trùng bình sữa |url=https://moazbebe.com/moaz-may-tiet-trung-binh-sua/ |access-date=2025-04-02 |work=moazbebe.com |language=en-GB}}{{cite web |title=Best practices for baby bottle sterilization |url=https://www.texaschildrens.org/blog/best-practices-baby-bottle-sterilization |website=Texas Children's Hospital |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214230333/https://www.texaschildrens.org/blog/best-practices-baby-bottle-sterilization |url-status=live }}

Some states, such as Illinois, continue to recommend sterilization in addition to washing.{{cite web |title=03.05.06 - Infant Feeding Procedures |url=https://www.dhs.state.il.us/page.aspx?item=51517 |website=Illinois Department of Human Services |access-date=14 December 2021 |date=2011 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214221205/https://www.dhs.state.il.us/page.aspx?item=51517 |url-status=live }} Alberta, Canada recommends sterilizing bottles until an infant is at least 4 months old.{{cite web |title=Nutrition Guideline Healthy Infants and Young Children Safe Preparation and Handling of Infant Formula |url=https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/assets/info/nutrition/if-nfs-ng-healthy-infants-infant-formula-safe-preparation-handling.pdf |website=Alberta Health Services |date=2015 |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214223746/https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/assets/info/nutrition/if-nfs-ng-healthy-infants-infant-formula-safe-preparation-handling.pdf |url-status=live }}

However, there is evidence that bacteria such as E. coli can thrive in biofilms which form on the interior walls of the bottles. Gentle rinsing is not enough to prevent this. Even in developed areas, contamination continues to be a concern.{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=J. A. |last2=Gatherer |first2=A. |date=1970-04-04 |title=Hygiene of infant-feeding utensils. Practices and standards in the home |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1699766/ |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=2 |issue=5700 |pages=20–23 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.5700.20 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=1699766 |pmid=5440567}} In 2009 in the United Kingdom, researchers found contamination with Staphylococcus aureus in 4% of the baby bottles that parents reported were ready to fill after cleaning and disinfecting.{{cite journal |last1=Byrd-Bredbenner |first1=Carol |last2=Berning |first2=Jacqueline |last3=Martin-Biggers |first3=Jennifer |last4=Quick |first4=Virginia |title=Food Safety in Home Kitchens: A Synthesis of the Literature |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=2013 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=4060–4085 |doi=10.3390/ijerph10094060 |pmid=24002725 |pmc=3799528 |issn=1661-7827|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Redmond |first1=Elizabeth C |last2=Griffith |first2=Christopher J |last3=Riley |first3=Steven |title=Contamination of bottles used for feeding reconstituted powdered infant formula and implications for public health |journal=Perspectives in Public Health |date=March 2009 |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=85–94 |doi=10.1177/1757913908101606 |pmid=19354201 |s2cid=34509523 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19354201/ |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214200053/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19354201/ |url-status=live }}

In lower-resource settings, risks of exposure to dangerous respiratory and enteric infections are higher.{{cite journal |last1=Rothstein |first1=Jessica D. |last2=Mendoza |first2=Alejandra Llican |last3=Cabrera |first3=Lilia Z. |last4=Pachas |first4=Jessica |last5=Calderón |first5=Maritza |last6=Pajuelo |first6=Mónica J. |last7=Caulfield |first7=Laura E. |last8=Winch |first8=Peter J. |last9=Gilman |first9=Robert H. |title=Household Contamination of Baby Bottles and Opportunities to Improve Bottle Hygiene in Peri-Urban Lima, Peru |journal=The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |date=3 April 2019 |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=988–997 |doi=10.4269/ajtmh.18-0301 |pmid=30834885 |pmc=6447096 }}

A study of children admitted to hospital in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, found that 52.1% of the bottles their caregivers considered clean were actually contaminated. This occurred even though caregivers reportedly followed many of the recommended cleaning practices for cleaning and sterilizing bottles. The most common mistake was to boil the bottles for less than the minimum time recommended by WHO.{{cite journal |last1=Ayaz |first1=F. |last2=Ayaz |first2=S. B. |last3=Furrukh |first3=M. |last4=Matee |first4=S. |title=Cleaning practices and contamination status of infant feeding bottle contents and teats in Rawalpindi, Pakistan |journal=Pakistan Journal of Pathology |date=2017 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=13–20 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316554148 |access-date=14 December 2021}}{{cite web |title=Safe preparation, storage and handling of powdered infant formula Guidelines |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/pif_guidelines.pdf |website=World Health Organization |publisher=World Health Organization in collaboration with Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=2007 |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224103036/https://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/pif_guidelines.pdf |url-status=live }}

Research into the preparation of infant formula in South Korea indicates significant levels of contamination can be transmitted through the handling of spoons and other utensils. Spoons, after being touched, were often left in the formula container, allowing bacteria to spread to the formula in the container. C. sakazakii, S. enterica, and S. aureus, all of which are potentially fatal, were able to surviving for weeks in contaminated infant formula.{{cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Tae Jin |last2=Hwang |first2=Ji Yeon |last3=Kim |first3=Hye Won |last4=Kim |first4=Yong Ki |last5=Il Kwon |first5=Jeong |last6=Kim |first6=Young Jun |last7=Lee |first7=Kwang Won |last8=Kim |first8=Sun Ae |last9=Rhee |first9=Min Suk |title=Underestimated Risks of Infantile Infectious Disease from the Caregiver's Typical Handling Practices of Infant Formula |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 July 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=9799 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-46181-0 |pmid=31278304 |pmc=6611816 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9799C |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-46181-0 |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}

Understanding how recommendations are interpreted is important: in one study, leaving a bottle in water that had been previously boiled in a kettle was believed to be "boiling" the bottle. Researchers emphasize that health providers need to better educate caregivers; and that practical methods of bottle hygiene need to be suited to use in field settings. For example, in Peru, easy-to-adopt practices like using a bottle brush and detergent gave greater advantages than difficult-to-achieve procedures like boiling a bottle. WHO (which strongly recommends breastfeeding) notes that in cases where bottle feeding is to occur, much better education is needed on how to use bottles.{{cite web |title=WHO and UNICEF issue new guidance to promote breastfeeding in health facilities globally |url=https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/who-unicef-issue-new-guidance-promote-breastfeeding-globally |website=UNICEF |access-date=14 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214221159/https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/who-unicef-issue-new-guidance-promote-breastfeeding-globally |url-status=live }}

Nipples (teats) are typically subdivided by flow rate, with the slowest flow rate recommended for premature infants and infants with feeding difficulties. However, flow rates are not standardised and vary considerably between brands.{{Cite web|url=http://pediatricfeedingnews.com/know-the-flow-dont-go-with-the-flow-by-britt-pados-phdc-rn-nnp-bc-bpadosemail-unc-edu/|title=Know the flow, don't go with the flow|date=2014-06-08|website=Pediatric Feeding News|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-27|archive-date=2018-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213113334/http://pediatricfeedingnews.com/know-the-flow-dont-go-with-the-flow-by-britt-pados-phdc-rn-nnp-bc-bpadosemail-unc-edu/|url-status=live}}

The NHS recommends a sippy cup or beaker be introduced by 6 months and the use of bottles discontinued by 1 year.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/drinks-and-cups-children/|title=Drinks and cups for babies and toddlers|date=2017-12-21|website=nhs.uk|language=en|access-date=2018-12-27|archive-date=2018-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212015801/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/drinks-and-cups-children/|url-status=live}} The AAP recommends that the cup be introduced by one year of age and that the use of the bottle by discontinued by 18 months.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/aap-press-room-media-center/Pages/Weaning-from-the-Bottle.aspx|title=Weaning from the Bottle|website=www.aap.org|publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics|access-date=2018-12-27|archive-date=2018-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227230215/https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/aap-press-room-media-center/Pages/Weaning-from-the-Bottle.aspx|url-status=live}}

The use of bottles is discouraged beyond two years of age by most health organisations as prolonged use can cause tooth decay.{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/weaning-from-breastfeeding-beyond-the-basics|title=Patient education: Weaning from breastfeeding (Beyond the Basics)|last=Lisa Enger|website=UpToDate|access-date=2018-12-27|archive-date=2018-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227181639/https://www.uptodate.com/contents/weaning-from-breastfeeding-beyond-the-basics|url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Anil |first1=Sukumaran |last2=Anand |first2=Pradeep S. |title=Early Childhood Caries: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Prevention |journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics |date=18 July 2017 |volume=5 |pages=157 |doi=10.3389/fped.2017.00157 |pmid=28770188 |pmc=5514393 |doi-access=free }} Early childhood caries (ECC) is also a concern when considering how long breastfeeding should continue.{{cite journal |last1=Lackey |first1=Kimberly A. |last2=Fehrenkamp |first2=Bethaney D. |last3=Pace |first3=Ryan M. |last4=Williams |first4=Janet E. |last5=Meehan |first5=Courtney L. |last6=McGuire |first6=Mark A. |last7=McGuire |first7=Michelle K. |title=Breastfeeding Beyond 12 Months: Is There Evidence for Health Impacts? |journal=Annual Review of Nutrition |date=11 October 2021 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=283–308 |doi=10.1146/annurev-nutr-043020-011242 |pmid=34115518 |s2cid=235412156 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-043020-011242 |access-date=16 December 2021 |issn=0199-9885}}

While infant formula is highly regulated in many countries, baby bottles are not. Only the materials of the teat and bottle itself are specifically regulated in some countries (e.g. British Standards BS 7368:1990 "Specification for babies' elastomeric feeding bottle teats"{{cite web|url=http://bsonline.techindex.co.uk/BSI2/protected/SitePage.asp?LS=&PgID=0003&LR=&LD=&Src=&Dest=&Last=&SessID=QGL0BA3DRQ358HUX82N5CV5B237V06N2&MSCSID=&ErrID=&SessStat=&Parent=&Child=&PCount=0&LogStat=&URLData=&EndPage=20&SEARCH_ID=D97L82VQJKEX9PBXUNGQS9RET0SU9LUB&StartRecord=1&ITEM_UPI=223922&SEARCH_TYPE=SRCH_TYP_QCK&StartPage=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513234341/http://bsonline.techindex.co.uk/BSI2/protected/SitePage.asp?LS=&PgID=0003&LR=&LD=&Src=&Dest=&Last=&SessID=QGL0BA3DRQ358HUX82N5CV5B237V06N2&MSCSID=&ErrID=&SessStat=&Parent=&Child=&PCount=0&LogStat=&URLData=&EndPage=20&SEARCH_ID=D97L82VQJKEX9PBXUNGQS9RET0SU9LUB&StartRecord=1&ITEM_UPI=223922&SEARCH_TYPE=SRCH_TYP_QCK&StartPage=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-05-13|title=BSI British Standards Index|website=bsonline.techindex.co.uk}}). In the USA, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates teats and the bottle materials.{{cite web |last1=Mo |first1=Chuiyan |title=Baby Feeding Bottle Standards & Regulations in the United States |url=https://www.compliancegate.com/baby-feeding-bottle-standards-united-states/#16_CFR_Part_150087_-_Childrens_products_containing_lead |website=Compliance Gate |access-date=30 November 2021 |date=10 March 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130151908/https://www.compliancegate.com/baby-feeding-bottle-standards-united-states/#16_CFR_Part_150087_-_Childrens_products_containing_lead |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Baby Bottles |url=https://www.consumerwatch.com/children/baby-bottles/ |website=Consumer Watch |date=14 July 2016 |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130233322/https://www.consumerwatch.com/children/baby-bottles/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |author=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition |title=FDA Issues Guidance on Food Contact Substances for Use with Infant Formula and/or Human Milk |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-issues-guidance-food-contact-substances-use-infant-formula-andor-human-milk |website=FDA |access-date=30 November 2021 |language=en |date=20 December 2019 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130233340/https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-issues-guidance-food-contact-substances-use-infant-formula-andor-human-milk |url-status=live }}{{cite web |author=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition |title=Once Baby Arrives from Food Safety for Moms to Be |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/people-risk-foodborne-illness/once-baby-arrives-food-safety-moms-be |website=FDA |access-date=30 November 2021 |language=en |date=10 April 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411162708/https://www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/HealthEducators/ucm089629.htm |url-status=live }}

In 1985 the FDA restricted allowable levels of nitrosamines (many of which are carcinogens) released from bottle teats.{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cpg-sec-500450-volatile-n-nitrosamines-rubber-baby-bottle-nipples |title=Compliance Policy Guide: CPG Sec 500.450 Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Rubber Baby Bottle Nipples |author=Office of Regulatory Affairs |website=FDA |date=2005 |access-date=2021-12-01 |archive-date=2021-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201152331/https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cpg-sec-500450-volatile-n-nitrosamines-rubber-baby-bottle-nipples |url-status=live }} Tests of bottle nipples available in the USA, Singapore, West Germany, England, Japan and Korea suggest that levels of nitrosamines in most rubber baby bottle teats are within recommended standards.{{cite journal |last1=Weston |first1=Roderick J. |title=Volatile Nitrosamine Levels in Rubber Teats and Pacifiers Available in New Zealand |journal=Journal of Analytical Toxicology |date=1 March 1985 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=89–90 |doi=10.1093/jat/9.2.89 |pmid=3990253 |osti=6997326 |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6997326-volatile-nitrosamine-levels-rubber-teats-pacifiers-available-new-zealand |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220161434/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6997326-volatile-nitrosamine-levels-rubber-teats-pacifiers-available-new-zealand |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Se-Jong |last2=Jeong |first2=Mi-Jin |last3=Park |first3=So-Ra |last4=Choi |first4=Jae Chun |last5=Choi |first5=Heeju |last6=Kim |first6=MeeKyung |title=Release of N-nitrosamines and N-nitrosatable substances from baby bottle teats and rubber kitchen tools in Korea |journal=Food Science and Biotechnology |date=10 April 2018 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1519–1524 |doi=10.1007/s10068-018-0373-6 |pmid=30319863 |pmc=6170278 |issn=1226-7708}}

Another chemical that has been regulated is Bisphenol A (BPA), described as an endocrine disruptor in 1991. Ongoing research into the possible effects of BPA at levels of exposure far below the U.S. government's BPA safety standards has led to concerns about the safety of plastics, including baby bottles. A 1999 Consumer Reports study showed that some polycarbonate baby bottles released unsafe amounts of BPA.{{cite web|url=http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/feeding-nutrition/Pages/Baby-Bottles-And-Bisphenol-A-BPA.aspx|title=Baby Bottles and Bisphenol A (BPA)|website=HealthyChildren.org|date=23 February 2012 |access-date=2014-10-28|archive-date=2014-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028032959/http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/feeding-nutrition/Pages/Baby-Bottles-And-Bisphenol-A-BPA.aspx|url-status=live}}{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/02/28/BAGFUOCKIU1.DTL | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | first=Jane | last=Kay | title=SAN FRANCISCO / Lawmaker wants state to follow city's lead with 'toxic toy' ban / Bill would bar certain chemicals in products | date=24 June 2011}} Concerns about BPA have been supported by further work.{{cite journal |last1=Vogel |first1=Sarah A. |title=The Politics of Plastics: The Making and Unmaking of Bisphenol A "Safety" |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=November 2009 |volume=99 |issue=S3 |pages=S559–S566 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2008.159228 |pmid=19890158 |pmc=2774166 }}{{cite journal |last1=Halden |first1=Rolf U. |title=Plastics and Health Risks |journal=Annual Review of Public Health |date=1 March 2010 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=179–194 |doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103714 |pmid=20070188 |issn=0163-7525|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Rozek |first1=Laura S. |last2=Dolinoy |first2=Dana C. |last3=Sartor |first3=Maureen A. |last4=Omenn |first4=Gilbert S. |title=Epigenetics: Relevance and Implications for Public Health |journal=Annual Review of Public Health |date=18 March 2014 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=105–122 |doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182513 |pmid=24641556 |pmc=4480875 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182513 |access-date=30 November 2021 |issn=0163-7525}} (Research into the effects of BPA has frequently been hotly contested and controversial{{cite journal |last1=Vandenberg |first1=Laura N. |last2=Maffini |first2=Maricel V. |last3=Sonnenschein |first3=Carlos |last4=Rubin |first4=Beverly S. |last5=Soto |first5=Ana M. |title=Bisphenol-A and the Great Divide: A Review of Controversies in the Field of Endocrine Disruption |journal=Endocrine Reviews |date=1 February 2009 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=75–95 |doi=10.1210/er.2008-0021 |pmid=19074586 |pmc=2647705 }} and issues have been raised over research biases due to industry funding and conflicts of interest due to close ties between government consultants and BPA manufacturers.) One result has been proposals to change the testing paradigm for assessment of endocrine-disrupting chemicals.

Research and public pressure have led to bans on the use of Bisphenol A in bottles and cups to be used by children.{{cite web |title=BPA Bans and Restrictions in Food Contact Materials |url=https://www.sgs.com/en/news/2018/10/bpa-bans-and-restrictions-in-food-contact-materials |website=Société Générale de Surveillance |date=2018 |access-date=30 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118155727/https://www.sgs.com/en/news/2018/10/bpa-bans-and-restrictions-in-food-contact-materials |url-status=live }} In 2008 Walmart announced that it would stop selling baby bottles and food containers containing BPA.{{cite journal |last1=Gore |first1=Andrea C. |last2=Patisaul |first2=Heather B. |title=Neuroendocrine Disruption: Historical Roots, Current Progress, Questions for the Future |journal=Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology |date=October 2010 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=395–399 |doi=10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.07.003 |pmid=20638407 |pmc=2964387 |issn=0091-3022}} As of 2017, these were applied in at least 40 countries. Canada classified BPA as "toxic" in 2008 under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. In 2011 use of bisphenol A in baby bottles was forbidden in all EU countries,{{cite web |title=Bisphenol A: EU ban on baby bottles to enter into force tomorrow |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_11_664 |website=European Commission - European Commission |access-date=1 December 2021 |date=31 May 2011 |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185540/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_11_664 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/bisphenol-a-eu-lebensmittelamt-senkt-grenzwert-fuer-a-1014139.html |title=Umstrittene Chemikalie: EU-Behörde senkt Grenzwert für Bisphenol A |newspaper=Der Spiegel |language=de |date=January 21, 2015 |access-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121153205/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/bisphenol-a-eu-lebensmittelamt-senkt-grenzwert-fuer-a-1014139.html |url-status=live }} in China, in Malaysia, and South Africa.{{cite web |title=Brazil to ban baby bottles containing BPA |date=15 September 2011 |url=https://chemicalwatch.com/8425/brazil-to-ban-baby-bottles-containing-bpa |website=Chemical Watch |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185541/https://chemicalwatch.com/8425/brazil-to-ban-baby-bottles-containing-bpa |url-status=live }} In July 2012, the FDA stated that BPA would no longer used in baby bottles and sippy cups, in response to a petition from the American Chemistry Council stating that this was now in line with industry practice.{{cite news |last1=Tavernise |first1=Sabrina |title=F.D.A. Makes It Official: BPA Can't Be Used in Baby Bottles and Cups |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/science/fda-bans-bpa-from-baby-bottles-and-sippy-cups.html |access-date=1 December 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=17 July 2012 |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185539/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/science/fda-bans-bpa-from-baby-bottles-and-sippy-cups.html |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=DeNoon |first1=Daniel J. |title=FDA Bans BPA in Baby Bottles |url=https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/news/20120717/fda-bans-bpa-baby-bottles |website=WebMD |access-date=1 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185538/https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/news/20120717/fda-bans-bpa-baby-bottles |url-status=live }} Other countries such as Argentina{{cite web |title=Argentina bans BPA in baby bottles |date=24 April 2012 |url=https://chemicalwatch.com/10885/argentina-bans-bpa-in-baby-bottles |website=Chemical Watch |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185542/https://chemicalwatch.com/10885/argentina-bans-bpa-in-baby-bottles |url-status=live }} and Brazil followed suit by prohibiting bisphenol A in baby bottles. Korea has extended its BPA ban to include all children's utensils, containers and packaging as of January 2020.{{cite web |title=South Korea to ban BPA in infant and toddler FCMs |date=12 September 2018 |url=https://chemicalwatch.com/70125/south-korea-to-ban-bpa-in-infant-and-toddler-fcms |website=Chemical Watch |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185543/https://chemicalwatch.com/70125/south-korea-to-ban-bpa-in-infant-and-toddler-fcms |url-status=live }} There are calls for increased regulation of BPA in India.{{cite journal |last1=Mahamuni |first1=Duraisamy |last2=Shrinithivihahshini |first2=Nirmaladevi Dhandayudapani |title=Need for regulatory policies in India, on the use of bisphenol A in food contact plastic containers |journal=Current Science |date=2017 |volume=113 |issue=5 |doi=10.18520/cs/v113/i05/861-868 |pages=861–868 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319953828 |access-date=1 December 2021 |issn=0011-3891|doi-access=free }}{{cite web |title=India to test consumer products and FCMs for BPA presence |date=18 November 2020 |url=https://chemicalwatch.com/181047/india-to-test-consumer-products-and-fcms-for-bpa-presence |website=Chemical Watch |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201185543/https://chemicalwatch.com/181047/india-to-test-consumer-products-and-fcms-for-bpa-presence |url-status=live }}

File:Infant feeding bottle, Castledyke Cemetery.jpg

Image:Modersohn-Becker_Kind_mit_Saugflasche.jpg)]]

Throughout most of human history, infant nutrition has primarily depended on the availability of the child's mother or a wet nurse to breastfeed the infant. Beliefs and behaviors relating to infant feeding also vary widely across countries, cultures and times. Mothers and caregivers have also sought additional ways to feed children, sometimes referred to as "hand feeding".{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Amy |title=Breastfeeding and Breast Milk – from Biochemistry to Impact |chapter=Chapter 9 Sociological and Cultural Influences upon Breastfeeding |date=1 July 2018 |publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag KG |doi=10.21428/3d48c34a.2a0f254a |s2cid=240465757 |url=https://tghncollections.pubpub.org/pub/9-sociological-and-cultural-influences-upon-breastfeeding/release/2 |language=en |access-date=2 December 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202015316/https://tghncollections.pubpub.org/pub/9-sociological-and-cultural-influences-upon-breastfeeding/release/2 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |editor-last1=Stuart-Macadam |editor-first1=Patricia |editor-last2=Dettwyler |editor-first2=Katherine |author-first=Valerie |author-last=Fildes |title=Breastfeeding : Bicultural Perspectives. |date=1995 |chapter=Chapter 4 The Culture and Biology of Breastfeeding: An Historical Review of Western Europe |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=Somerset |isbn=9781351530743 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGZQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 |pages= 101–126 |access-date=3 December 2021}} As early as {{BCE|1500}}, Egyptian pottery shows images of women breastfeeding their babies and also using animal horns to feed them.

File:Sauggefäß Regensburg-Harting.jpg (ca. 1350–800 BCE)]]

Containers with hard spouts date to early in recorded time, as evidence by archeological finds (see image). The first vessels known to be used for feeding infants had an opening at one end for filling the bottle, and a second at the other to be put into the baby's mouth.{{cite journal |last1=Wilke |first1=Carolyn |title=What did ancient people eat? Scientists find new clues in old pottery |journal=Knowable Magazine |date=21 July 2021 |doi=10.1146/knowable-052221-1 |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/society/2021/what-did-ancient-people-eat |access-date=30 November 2021 |doi-access=free |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130044543/https://knowablemagazine.org/article/society/2021/what-did-ancient-people-eat |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal|last1=Dunne|first1=J.|last2=Rebay-Salisbury|first2=K.|last3=Salisbury|first3=R. B.|last4=Frisch|first4=A.|last5=Walton-Doyle|first5=C.|last6=Evershed|first6=R. P.|date=2019-09-25|title=Milk of ruminants in ceramic baby bottles from prehistoric child graves|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=574|issue=7777|pages=246–248|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1572-x|pmid=31554964|bibcode=2019Natur.574..246D|s2cid=202760220|issn=1476-4687|url=https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/files/219986105/Accepted_Ruminant_animal_milk_in_ceramic_baby_bottles_from_European_prehistoric_child_graves_1_.pdf|hdl=1983/fe4e378a-bfc6-4b0a-8c00-7ef4a49dba0d|hdl-access=free|access-date=2020-06-05|archive-date=2020-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509225329/https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/files/219986105/Accepted_Ruminant_animal_milk_in_ceramic_baby_bottles_from_European_prehistoric_child_graves_1_.pdf|url-status=live}}

• {{cite news |date=2019-09-25 |title=Scientists unearth prehistoric 'baby bottles' in Germany |work=Deutsche Welle |url=https://www.dw.com/en/scientists-unearth-prehistoric-baby-bottles-in-germany/a-50587532 |access-date=2019-09-26 |archive-date=2019-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926155754/https://www.dw.com/en/scientists-unearth-prehistoric-baby-bottles-in-germany/a-50587532 |url-status=live }} Examination of the organic residues on ancient ceramic baby bottles shows that they were used as early as {{BCE|1200}} to feed babies with animal milk.

Around {{BCE|250}} to {{BCE|300}} the Egyptians developed the ability to blow glass and the Romans blew clear feeding bottles of glass, but these did not obtain long-term popularity. Leather and wood were also used.

By the 1700s infant-feeding vessels such as the feeding-cups, bubby-pots, and sucking-pots were also being made{{cite book |editor-last1=Preedy |editor-first1=Victor R. |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first2=Ronald Ross |editor-last3=Zibadi |editor-first3=Sherma |last1=Castilho |first1=S. Diez |last2=Barros Filho |first2=A. de Azevedo |title=Handbook of dietary and nutritional aspects of bottle feeding|chapter=Historical aspects of formula feeding |date=2014 |publisher=Wageningen Academic Publishers |location=Wageningen, Netherlands |isbn=9789086867776 |pages=17–33 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BhPTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |access-date=1 December 2021}} from materials that included pewter, tin, and silver.

File:Baby with feeding bottle, 1922 Wellcome L0011546.jpg

In the 19th century, artificial feeding begin to replace wet nursing, and by 1900, wet nursing no longer existed as an organized profession. Changes to the feeding of infants were both socially and technologically driven. With industrialization, more mothers worked outside the home and could less easily breastfeed their children. Technological changes including the design of artificial feeding methods and the preparation of animal milks and other milk substitutes supported a transition to artificial feeding, but with mixed success. Understanding of both nutrition and sanitation lagged behind the introduction of artificial feeding methods, contributing to extremely high infant mortality rates in the Victorian era.{{cite journal |last1=Davenport |first1=Romola J. |title=Mortality, migration and epidemiological change in English cities, 1600–1870 |journal=International Journal of Paleopathology |date=September 2021 |volume=34 |pages=37–49 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2021.05.009 |pmid=34146819 |pmc=7611108 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/325781/article.pdf?sequence=2 |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203203016/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/325781/article.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Davenport |first1=Romola Jane |title=Infant-feeding practices and infant survival by familial wealth in London, 1752–1812 |journal=The History of the Family |date=2 January 2019 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=174–206 |doi=10.1080/1081602X.2019.1580601 |pmid=31058272 |pmc=6474727 }}{{cite book |editor-last1=Falkner |editor-first1=Frank |author-last=Fildes |author-first=Valerie |title=Infant and Child Nutrition Worldwide: Issues and Perspectives |chapter= 1 Breast-Feeding Practices During Industrialisation 1800–1919 |date=2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0367450489 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBgoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |access-date=3 December 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Knodel |first1=John |last2=Kintner |first2=Hallie |title=The impact of breast feeding patterns on the biometric analysis of infant mortality |journal=Demography |date=1 November 1977 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=391–409 |doi=10.2307/2060586 |jstor=2060586 |pmid=913727 |s2cid=37803365 |doi-access=free }}

File:Glass feeding bottle, London, England, 1901-1918 Wellcome L0058192.jpg

In the United States, the first glass nursing bottle was patented by C.M. Windship in 1841. It was intentionally shaped like the mother's breast. In 1845 the Alexandra Feeder was marketed in England.{{cite journal |last1=Castilho |first1=Silvia Diez |last2=Barros Filho |first2=Antonio de Azevedo |last3=Cocetti |first3=Monize |title=Evolução histórica dos utensílios empregados para alimentar lactentes não amamentados (Historical evolution of utensils used to feed non breastfed infants) |journal=Ciência & Saúde Coletiva |date=June 2010 |volume=15 |issue=suppl 1 |pages=1401–1410 |doi=10.1590/s1413-81232010000700050 |pmid=20640300 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/pub |access-date=30 November 2021|doi-access=free }} In Paris, the "Biberon" was introduced by M. Darbo: it was reported to be quite popular in a review from 1851.{{cite journal |title=Addenda 162: The Biberon, A New Feeding-Bottle |journal=The Retrospect of Practical Medicine and Surgery |date=1851 |publisher= Adee & Estabrook |volume=23 |issue=July |page=301 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PIVMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA301 |access-date=30 November 2021}}

As the group American Collectors of Infant Feeders notes, by "the late 1800s a large variety of glass nursing bottles were produced in the United States", and the U.S. Patent Office had issued more than 200 patents for various designs of nursing bottles by the 1940s—designed to lie flat or stand up straight, with openings on their sides or ends, with detachable or permanently attached nipples, etc.{{cite book|first= E.|last= Bogucki|year= 2007|title= History of Nursing Bottles|work= American Collectors of Infant Feeders |url= http://www.acif.org/past.html|access-date= February 27, 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170701111943/http://www.acif.org/past.html|archive-date= July 1, 2017|url-status= dead}}

File:Burr's Improved Nursing Bottle 1868 Advertisement.jpg

The design of baby bottles and particularly the ease of cleaning them had potentially serious consequences for the health of the children using them. Estimates of infant mortality suggest that 20-30% of infants died in the first year of life during the late Victorian era.{{cite web |title=The First Measured Century: Timeline: Data - Mortality |url=https://www.pbs.org/fmc/timeline/dmortality.htm |quote="Prior to 1900, infant mortality rates of two and three hundred [per 1000 live births] obtained throughout the world." |website=PBS |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120121854/https://www.pbs.org/fmc/timeline/dmortality.htm |url-status=live }} During the 1890s, at a time when England's childhood mortality rates (ages 1-5) were declining, infant mortality rates actually rose.{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Naomi |last2=Mooney |first2=Graham |title=Infant mortality in an 'Age of Great Cities': London and the English provincial cities compared, c. 1840–1910 |journal=Continuity and Change |date=August 1994 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=185–212 |doi=10.1017/S0268416000002265 |s2cid=143834557 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0268416000002265 |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=en |issn=1469-218X}}{{cite web |title=Populations Past – Atlas of Victorian and Edwardian Population |url=https://www.populationspast.org/about/ |website=Populations Past |publisher=University of Cambridge |access-date=3 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203230815/https://www.populationspast.org/about/ |url-status=live }} A bottle with a long Indian rubber tube ending in a teat remained popular until the 1920s because even very young babies could feed independently. The feeding tubes could be bought separately and were sometimes used with empty whiskey or medicine bottles. Almost impossible to keep clean, this type has been nicknamed the "murder bottle".{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Charles S. |title=Photographic proof |url=https://www.fohbc.org/PDF_Files/CHarris_PhotographicProof.pdf |website=The Federation of Historical Bottle Collectors |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130175932/https://www.fohbc.org/PDF_Files/CHarris_PhotographicProof.pdf |url-status=live }}

File:Time Tunnel museum17.jpg museum.|alt=]]

Allen and Hanbury introduced a new bottle design with a removable valve and teat on the two ends in 1894, and an improved model, the Allenbury, in 1900. This "banana" bottle was easier to clean. Sometimes referred to as the "hygienic bottle", it helped to improve survival rates. Similar bottles were introduced by other manufacturers and remained popular from the 1900s to the 1950s. Eventually increased understanding of the causes and transmission of disease and improvements in medicine and public health began to reduce infant mortality.{{cite journal |last1=Barrett |first1=Ronald |last2=Kuzawa |first2=Christopher W. |last3=McDade |first3=Thomas |last4=Armelagos |first4=George J. |title=Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases: The Third Epidemiologic Transition |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=October 1998 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=247–271 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.247 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.247 |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203224916/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.247 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Preston |first1=Samuel H. |last2=Haines |first2=Michael R. |title=Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America |date=1991 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c11541/c11541.pdf |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117225856/https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c11541/c11541.pdf |url-status=live }}

Heat-resistant Pyrex bottles were introduced to the American and British markets at different times. Pyrex bottles were first introduced in the United States by Corning Inc. in 1922. They were offered in three shapes (narrow neck, wide mouth, and flat) and multiple sizes, for a total of ten varieties. By 1925, the product line had been limited to a small subset of the original shapes and sizes.{{cite web |title=1920's Pyrex Baby Bottle |url=https://www.collectorsweekly.com/stories/117370-1920s-pyrex-baby-bottle |website=Collectors Weekly |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130044544/https://www.collectorsweekly.com/stories/117370-1920s-pyrex-baby-bottle |url-status=live }} In the 1950s a upright Pyrex bottle with a narrow neck was introduced. In the 1960s a wide-neck version was finally introduced to the UK market. The design of upright bottles with a wider mouth meant that they could be more easily cleaned, and sterilized in batches.{{cite web |title=See how vintage baby bottles, infant nursers & feeding accessories have changed over the years - Click Americana |url=https://clickamericana.com/topics/family-parenting/vintage-baby-bottles-infant-nursers |website=Click Americana |access-date=3 December 2021 |date=21 June 2020 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203225754/https://clickamericana.com/topics/family-parenting/vintage-baby-bottles-infant-nursers |url-status=live }}

Soft nipples of various materials were introduced early in the history of feeding (e.g., leather, cork, sponge, dried cow's teat filled with cloth). Many were very difficult to clean and when unsanitary could pose a serious threat to infant health.{{cite journal |last1=Stevens |first1=Emily E |last2=Patrick |first2=Thelma E |last3=Pickler |first3=Rita |title=A History of Infant Feeding |journal=Journal of Perinatal Education |date=1 January 2009 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=32–39 |doi=10.1624/105812409X426314 |pmid=20190854 |pmc=2684040 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Greenberg |first1=Martin H. |last2=Smith |first2=George F. |last3=Vidyasagar |first3=Dharmapuri |title=Historical Review and Recent Advances in Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine |chapter=Neonatal Feeding |date=1980 |publisher=Mead Johnson Nutritional Division |url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/mj1980/ |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207005732/http://www.neonatology.org/classics/mj1980/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Peringer |first1=Annabelle |title=The history of baby bottles |url=https://www.alimentarium.org/en/magazine/history/history-baby-bottles |website=Alimentarium Magazine |access-date=30 November 2021 |date=2014 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130044548/https://www.alimentarium.org/en/magazine/history/history-baby-bottles |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Wickes |first1=I. G. |title=A History of Infant Feeding: Part IV--Nineteenth Century Continued |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood |date=1 October 1953 |volume=28 |issue=141 |pages=416–422 |doi=10.1136/adc.28.141.416 |pmid=13105394 |pmc=1988630 |url=https://adc.bmj.com/content/archdischild/28/141/416.full.pdf |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130044548/https://adc.bmj.com/content/archdischild/28/141/416.full.pdf |url-status=live }}

Although Elijah Pratt of New York patented the first rubber nipple in 1845, it took until the 20th century before materials and technology improved sufficiently to allow manufacture of a soft nipple that was practical for use. The invention of rubber (1840s) provided a material that was soft. Early black Indian rubber "had a very strong pungent smell", and did not survive repeated exposures to hot water. However, by the early 1900s more pleasing rubber nipples could be manufactured in volume and could withstand the heat of sterilization.{{cite web |title=The history of the feeding bottle |url=https://lesbianfamilies.tumblr.com/post/120521779550/the-history-of-the-feeding-bottle |website=A diary of a lesbian family |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130044543/https://lesbianfamilies.tumblr.com/post/120521779550/the-history-of-the-feeding-bottle |url-status=live }}

During the 1940s nurse Adda M. Allen filed for multiple patents relating to the design of baby bottles,{{cite web |title=Google Patents: Inventor Adda M. Allen |url=https://patents.google.com/?inventor=Adda+M+Allen |website=patents.google.com |access-date=6 December 2021 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206162748/https://patents.google.com/?inventor=Adda+M+Allen |url-status=live }} including the first disposable collapsible liner for a baby bottle.{{cite web |last1=Stokowski |first1=Laura A. |title=Quiz: A Nurse Invented That? Inventiveness, Ingenuity, and Innovation in Nurses |url=https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/826122_3 |website=Medscape |access-date=6 December 2021 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206162747/https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/826122_3 |url-status=live }} Her patent was one of many attempts to design a bottle to limit swallowing of air during feeding, and reduce gastric upset and spitting up. A plastic bottle with a disposable liner was eventually tested at George Washington University Hospital and marketed by Playtex.{{cite web |last1=Vance |first1=Jacqueline |title=A nurse invented that! (But most likely didn't get credit for it) |url=https://www.mcknights.com/blogs/the-real-nurse-jackie/a-nurse-invented-that-but-most-likely-didnt-get-credit-for-it/ |website=The Real Nurse Jackie |access-date=6 December 2021 |date=September 30, 2014 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206192154/https://www.mcknights.com/blogs/the-real-nurse-jackie/a-nurse-invented-that-but-most-likely-didnt-get-credit-for-it/ |url-status=live }}

Innovations such as the introduction of a working check valve in the nipple (to provide unidirectional flow of the liquid food) appeared as early as 1948 in a patent to J.W. Less.U.S. patent 2442656 A, "Nursing nipple for bottles", American J.W. Less in 1948 (www.google.ca/patents/US2442656, accessed February 27, 2014) This technology was picked up by others including Owens-Illinois Glass,U.S. patent 2747573 A, "Valved nursing nipple", issued to W.A. Schaich of Owens-Illinois in 1956 (www.google.ca/patents/US2747573, accessed February 27, 2014) eventually making its way into Gerber and all modern pressure-balancing bottle designs.E.g., see U.S. patent 6032810 A, "One-piece nipple/collar for nursers and the like", issued to the Americans M.A. Gilbertson, B. J. Meyers, E.A. Raleigh, and M.S. Stowe of Gerber Products Company in 2000 (www.google.ca/patents/US6032810), and U.S. patent 20120248056 A1, "Teat unit", issued to the Swiss R. Fischer, E. Furrer, and B. Emmenegger of Medela Holding Ag in 2012 (www.google.ca/patents/US20120248056). Accessed February 27, 2014. It is also used for adult drinking cups and various other products requiring fluid flow under vacuum.E.g., see U.S. patent US 7775394 B2, "Opening-force-maximizing device of an underpressure-activated valve for a drinking container", issued to the Norwegian K. Næsje of Smartseal As in 2010 (www.google.ca/patents/US7775394). Accessed February 27, 2014.

The modern business of producing bottles in the developed world is substantial. For 2018, the global baby bottle market was valued at 2.6 billion USD.{{cite book |title=Global Baby Bottle Market Size & Share Report, 2019-2025 |date=2019 |publisher=Grand View Research, Inc. |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/baby-bottle-market |access-date=6 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206205754/https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/baby-bottle-market |url-status=live }}

{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Jennifer |title=North American Culture: Undermining Breastfeeding (Part 1 of 3) |url=https://www.contemporaryobgyn.net/view/north-american-culture-undermining-breastfeeding |website=Contemporary Ob/Gyn |access-date=6 December 2021 |date=November 3, 2011 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206205754/https://www.contemporaryobgyn.net/view/north-american-culture-undermining-breastfeeding |url-status=live }} In 1999 it was reported that the UK "feeding and sterilising equipment sector ... stands at £49m… [where] [s]ales of feeding bottles account for 39%" or £19.1m of that market.{{Cite web |url=http://www.keynote.co.uk/CnIsapi.dll?fld=X&alias=kn2k1&uni=99751&SetUserType=1&jump=&collapseLevel=0&fromPage=StatAZ&AutoShowFirstRecord=1&search=SY%20=%2014-696-19468&Browser=NETSCAPE |title=Welcome to Key Note.co.uk |access-date=2006-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090727114201/http://www.keynote.co.uk/CnIsapi.dll?fld=X&alias=kn2k1&uni=99751&SetUserType=1&jump=&collapseLevel=0&fromPage=StatAZ&AutoShowFirstRecord=1&search=SY%20=%2014-696-19468&Browser=NETSCAPE |archive-date=2009-07-27 |url-status=dead }}

The 2014 summary policy statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) makes no specific mention of bottle feeding, but makes clear that "[b]reastfeeding and human milk are the normative standards for infant feeding and nutrition", and refers to decisions regarding the supply of infant nutrition as "a public health issue and not only a lifestyle choice… [g]iven the documented short- and long-term medical and neurodevelopmental advantages of breastfeeding".{{cite web|url=http://www2.aap.org/breastfeeding/policyonbreastfeedinganduseofhumanmilk.html|title=American Academy of Pediatrics, AAP Policy on Breastfeeding and Use of Human Milk, see www2.aap.org accessed February 28, 2014.|access-date=2014-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425085004/http://www2.aap.org/breastfeeding/policyonbreastfeedinganduseofhumanmilk.html|archive-date=2014-04-25|url-status=dead}}{{Cite journal|title=Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk|first=Section On|last=Breastfeeding|date=March 1, 2012|journal=Pediatrics|volume=129|issue=3|pages=e827–e841|doi=10.1542/peds.2011-3552|pmid=22371471|doi-access=free}} The AAP policy recommends breastfeeding exclusively for six months, continuing it with introduction of complementary foods, with an overall duration of "1 year or longer as mutually desired by mother and infant". The body of the policy statement notes and cites literature indicating that, in addition to the importance of mother's milk, the manner of the food delivery has implications: that "breastfed infants self-regulate intake volume", whereas bottle-fed infants receiving expressed breast milk or formula have "increased bottle emptying, poorer self-regulation, and excessive weight gain in late infancy", and that such early practice of self-regulation correlate with adult patterns of weight gain (ibid.).

The AAP policy notes that "[m]edical contraindications to breastfeeding are rare". The transmission of some viral diseases through breastfeeding is reportedly preventable, e.g., by expressing breast milk and subjecting it to Holder pasteurization.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tully DB, Jones F, Tully MR | title = Donor milk: what's in it and what's not | journal = Journal of Human Lactation | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–5 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11847831 | doi = 10.1177/089033440101700212 | s2cid = 8798973 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

In response to public pressure felt from policies de-emphasizing bottle- and formula-feeding, efforts have arisen to support mothers experiencing physiologic or other difficulties in breastfeeding, and sites include individual views that attempt to weaken the scientific case of the AAP policy;{{cite web|url=http://www.fearlessformulafeeder.com/|title=Fearless Formula Feeder - Infant Feeding Support|website=www.fearlessformulafeeder.com|access-date=2014-02-28|archive-date=2014-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304183352/http://www.fearlessformulafeeder.com/|url-status=live}} a book of the personal experiences and views of one mother committed to bottle/formula feeding, Bottled Up, by Suzanne Barston, has appeared.{{cite book|first= S.|last= Barston|year= 2012|title= Bottled Up: How the Way We Feed Babies Has Come to Define Motherhood, and Why It Shouldn't|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 9780520270237|url= http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270237|access-date= February 28, 2014|archive-date= March 6, 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140306201504/http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270237|url-status= live}}

In 2007, a group of 38 researchers examined 700 studies into the use of the chemical compound Bisphenol A in plastics manufacturing, and warned that very low levels of exposure to the chemical can potentially pose adverse health effects, especially to a developing fetus.{{cite news | url=http://featuresblogs.chicagotribune.com/features_julieshealthclub/2007/08/scientists-warn.html | title=Scientists warn about plastic in baby bottles | newspaper=Chicago Tribune | date=August 3, 2007 | accessdate=September 26, 2012 | author=Deardorff, Julie | archive-date=February 8, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208040505/http://featuresblogs.chicagotribune.com/features_julieshealthclub/2007/08/scientists-warn.html | url-status=dead }}{{Update inline|date=December 2024}} In 2024, multiple baby bottle companies, including Nuk, Tommee Tippee, and Dr. Brown's, were involved in a class action lawsuit for their bottles leaching microplastics when heated.{{cite news | url=https://www.whattoexpect.com/news/baby-products/feeding-and-nutrition/dr-browns-philips-avent-baby-bottles-lawsuit | title=Tommee Tippee and Nuk Are the Latest Baby Bottle Brands to Get Sued over Microplastics | newspaper=What to Expect }}

• Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative
• Breastfeeding promotion
• Breastfeeding contraindications
• Haberman Feeder
• Infant formula
• International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes
• List of bottle types, brands and companies

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