Batik

The English word batik is borrowed from Javanese {{lang|jv-Latn|bathik}} (Javanese script: {{lang|jv|ꦧꦛꦶꦏ꧀}}, Pegon: {{lang|jv-Arab|باتيق}}).{{efn |{{IPA|jv|ˈb̥aʈɪʔ |pronunciation:}}; {{IPA|id|ˈbatɪk |lang}}}}{{cite book |last=Poerwadharminta |first=W.J.S. |title=Baoesastra Djawa |year=1939 |place=Batavia |publisher=J.B Wolters'}}{{cite book |last1=Robson |first1=Stuart |last2=Wibisono |first2=Singgih |title=Javanese-English Dictionary |year=2002 |place=Hong Kong |publisher=Periplus Editions}} English dictionaries tend to define batik as a general dyeing technique,{{cite web |title=Batik |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/batik |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=Cambridge |archive-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503091333/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/batik |url-status=live}}{{cite web |title=Batik |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/batik |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=Merriam-Webster |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202171640/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/batik |url-status=live}} meaning that cloths with similar methods of production but culturally unrelated to Javanese batik may be labelled as batik in English.{{efn|It is also Javanese terms that are often used in English sources to discuss batik cloths and techniques}} Robert Blust traces the Javanese word as a reflex of Proto-Austronesian {{lang|map|*batik}} and its doublet {{lang|map|*beCik}} which means decorations and patterns in general.{{sfn|Blust|1995|pp=496}}{{cite web |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |last2=Trussel |first2=Stephen |title=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition |url=https://www.trussel2.com/ACD/acd-s_b.htm#29977 |date=2020}}{{efn|Some sources claim that the term is a contraction of two Javanese words amba 'to write' and titik 'dots' or some other variations, but invariably these claims do not have clear source and is more akin to folk derived backronym.}} In Java, the word is only attested in sources post dating the Hindu–Buddhist period, from the 16th century onward.{{sfn|Langewis & Wagner|1964|pp=16}}{{sfn|Maxwell|2003|pp=325}}{{efn|Only the term {{lang|und|tulis warna|italic=yes}}, surmised to be similar with modern {{lang|jv-Latn|batik tulis}} production technique, has been attested in pre-Islamic Javanese sources{{sfn|Sardjono & Buckley|2022|pp=66}}}} Outside of Java, the word first appears in a 1641 merchant ship's bill of lading as {{lang|und|batick|italic=yes}}.{{sfn|Gittinger|1979|pp=16}} The term and technique came to wider public notice beyond Southeast Asia following Thomas Stamford Raffles's description of batik process in his 1817 book The History of Java.{{sfn|Sardjono & Buckley|2022|pp=64}} Colonial era Dutch sources record the word in various spellings, such as {{lang|und|mbatik|italic=yes}}, {{lang|und|mbatek|italic=yes}}, {{lang|und|batik|italic=yes}}, and {{lang|und|batek|italic=yes}}.{{cite web |access-date=2024-08-30 |work=Oxford English Dictionary |title=batik |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/batik_n?tab=factsheet#26282814}}{{cite web |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/batik |title=Batik |website=Dictionary.com |access-date=2024-08-30 }}

File:Niya batik.jpg|Fragment of dyed textile from Niya (Tarim Basin), China, 3rd to early 4th century

File:Egypt, Byzantine period, 1st half of 6th century - Resist-Dyed Hanging with Biblical Scenes - 1951.400 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Fragment of hanging with Biblical scenes, from Byzantine period Egypt, early 6th century

File:Ceremonial Banner from India, possibly 14th century, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG|Ceremonial banner from India, possibly 14th century

Batik-like resist dyeing is an ancient art form. It existed in Egypt in the 4th century BC, where it was used to wrap mummies; linen was soaked in wax, and scratched using a stylus. It continued to be used to the medieval Byzantine era, although surviving pieces are rare.{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Elizabeth Dospěl |last2=Krody |first2=Sumru Belger |last3=Bühl |first3=Gudrun |year=2019 |title=Woven Interiors: Furnishing Early Medieval Egypt |place=Washington |publisher=The George Washington University Museum and The Textile Museum |url=https://museum.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs6286/files/Woven%20Interiors%20Catalogue.pdf |isbn=978-0-87405-040-0|pages=67–68, 86}} In Asia, the technique is attested in India, the Tang dynasty in China, and the Nara Period in Japan. In Africa it was practiced by the Yoruba people of Nigeria, as well as by the Soninke and Wolof of Senegal.{{sfn|Nava|1991|}}

File:Prajnaparamita clothes detail.JPGnese Prajnaparamita statue, National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta]]

The art of batik is highly developed on the island of Java, Indonesia, although the antiquity of the technique is difficult to determine since batik pieces rarely survive long in the region's tropical climate. The Dutch historians G. G. Rouffaer & H. H. Juynboll argue that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Nava|1991|}}{{sfn|Rouffaer & Juynboll|1899}} The similarities between some traditional batik patterns with clothing details in ancient Hindu-Buddhist statuaries, for example East Javanese Prajnaparamita, has made some authors attribute batik's creation to Java's Hindu-Buddhist period (8th-16th century AD).{{cite web |title=Prajnaparamita and other Buddhist deities |url=http://volkenkunde.nl/nl/node/1049 |publisher=Volkenkunde Rijksmuseum |access-date=1 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502004644/http://volkenkunde.nl/nl/node/1049 |archive-date=2 May 2014 }} Some scholars cautioned that mere similarity of pattern is not conclusive of batik, as it could be made by other non-related techniques.{{sfn|Pullen|2021|pp=58}} Since the word "batik" is not attested in any pre-Islamic sources, some scholars have taken the view that batik only developed at the end of Java's Hindu-Buddhist period, from the 16th century onward following the demise of Majapahit kingdom.{{sfn|Langewis & Wagner|1964|pp=16}}{{sfn|Maxwell|2003|pp=325}} However, this view has not taken into account the oldest surviving physical Javanese batik piece, which was only identified in 2022. It is a blue-white valance carbon dated to the 13th or 14th century, which correspond to early Majapahit period. The batik's quality and dating suggest that sophisticated batik techniques already existed at the time, but competed with the more established ikat textiles.{{sfn|Sardjono & Buckley|2022}}

Batik craft further flourished in the Islamic courts of Java in the following centuries. The development of prominent batik types was partly motivated by the desire to replicate prestigious foreign textiles (such as Indian patola) brought in by the Indian Ocean maritime trade.{{sfn|Brussel|2021|pp=25-26}} When the Dutch East Indies Company began to impose their monopolistic trade practice in 17th century Indonesia, batik cloths was one of the product which stifled their textile sales. Dutch imports of chintz from the Coromandel coast could not compete with locally made batik due to their robust production and high quality.{{cite journal |last=Ruurdje |first=Laarhoven |title=A Silent Textile Trade War: Batik Revival as Economic and Political Weapon in 17th Century Java |date=September 2012 |journal=Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tsaconf/705?utm_source=digitalcommons.unl.edu%2Ftsaconf%2F705&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages}}

File:Raffles A Javan Chief in his ordinary dress.jpg|Depiction of early 19th century Javanese citizen wearing batik sarong, from The History of Java

File:Sarong, Northern Java, Indonesia, 1900-1910, cotton - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC04349.JPG|Sarong in the {{lang|id|pesisir}} "coastal" style from northern Javanese coast, early 20th century

File:Batik pedalaman - sidha drajat.JPG|Contemporary inland batik from Solo, Indonesia, with sidha drajat pattern.

File:Afrikanische Textilien.jpg|Waxprint fabrics in Togo, a modern African adaption of Javanese batik

Batik technique became more widely known (particularly by Europeans outside of southeast Asia) when the Javanese version was described in The History of Java, starting the collecting and scholarly interest in batik traditions. In 1873 the Dutch merchant Elie Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum in Rotterdam. Examples were displayed at Paris's Exposition Universelle in 1900. Today the Tropenmuseum houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in the Netherlands.{{sfn|Nava|1991|}}

In the 19th to early 20th century, Dutch Indo–Europeans and Chinese settlers were actively involved in the production and development of Javanese batik, particularly {{lang|id|pesisir}} "coastal" style batik in the northern coast of Java. Scholars such as J.E. Jasper and Mas Pirngadie published books extensively documenting existing batik patterns.{{cite book |last1=Jasper|first1=J.E.|last2=Pingardie|first2=Mas|title=De inlandsche kunstnijverheid in Nederlandsch Indië III: De batikkunst|date=1916|place='S-Gravenhage|publisher=Mouton & co.|hdl=1887.1/item:1094712 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1887.1/item:1094712 |ref=none}} These in turn were used by Dutch and Chinese artisans to develop new patterns which blended several cultural influences, and who also introduced innovations such as {{lang|id|cap}} (copper block stamps) to mass-produce batiks and synthetic dyes which allow brighter colours. Several prominent batik ateliers appeared, such as Eliza van Zuylen (1863–1947) and Oey Soe Tjoen (1901-1975),{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2013|pp=67,107-111}} and their products catered to a wide audience in the Malay archipelago (encompassing modern Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore). Batik skirts and sarongs for example were widely worn by indigenous, Chinese, and European women of the region, paired with the ubiquitous kebaya shirt. Batik was also used for more specialized applications, such as peranakan altar cloth called {{lang|nan-Latn|tok wi}} ({{zh|t=桌帷|labels=no}}).{{sfn|Lee et al|2015}}{{sfn|Shen & Wong|2023}}

It is in this time period as well that the Javanese batik production spread overseas. In Subsaharan Africa, Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English merchants. It was subsequently modified by local artisans with larger motifs, thicker lines, and more colours into what is now known as African wax prints. Modern West African versions also use cassava starch, rice paste, or mud as a resist.{{cite web |title=Batik in Africa |url=http://www.batikguild.org.uk/historyAfrica.asp |publisher=The Batik Guild |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409045340/http://www.batikguild.org.uk/historyAfrica.asp |url-status=live }} In the 1920s, Javanese batik makers migrating to the eastern coast of Malay Peninsula introduced batik production using stamp blocks.{{sfn|Shaharuddin et al|2021}}

Many traditional ateliers in Java collapsed immediately following the Second World War and Indonesian wars of independence,{{sfn|Harmsen|2018}} but many workshops and artisans are still active today creating a wide range of products. They still continue to influence a number of textile traditions and artists. In the 1970s for example, batik was introduced to Australia, where aboriginal artists at Ernabella have developed it as their own craft.{{cite web |last=Stevy |first=Maradona |title=Antropolog Australia Beri Ceramah Soal Batik |website=Republika |url=http://www.republika.co.id/berita/breaking-news/seni-budaya/11/02/09/163234-antropolog-australia-beri-ceramah-soal-batik |date=11 February 2011 }} The works of the English artist Thetis Blacker were influenced by Indonesian batik; she had worked in Yogyakarta's Batik Research Institute and had travelled in Bali.{{cite news |last=Buckman |first=David |title=Thetis Blacker: Visionary batik painter |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/thetis-blacker-434360.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/thetis-blacker-434360.html |archive-date=7 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |date=31 January 2007 |location=UK |accessdate=29 April 2016 }}{{cbignore}}

Production begins by washing the base cloth,{{efn|Batik applies resist on weaved fabric, in contrast to ikat which applies resist to the yarns prior to weaving.}} soaking it, and beating it with a large mallet. Patterns are sketched with pencil and redrawn using hot wax, usually made from a mixture of paraffin or beeswax, sometimes mixed with plant resins. The wax functions as a dye-resist which prevent colour absorption during the dyeing process. This creates a patterned negative when the wax is removed from the dyed cloth.{{sfn|Trefois|2010}}{{sfn |Elliott |1984|pp=50-59}} Using this mechanism, artisans may create intricate coloured patterns with multiple cycles of wax application and dyeing.

File:Resist dyeing.svg used in batik: a wax negative is created, enabling an area of any desired shape to be coloured. ]]

The wax can be applied with a variety of tools, including writing with a pen-like {{lang|id|canting}} tool, printing with a {{lang|id|cap}}, or painting with a brush.{{sfn|Trefois|2010}} The canting is the most basic and traditional tool, creating what is known as "written batik" ({{lang|id|batik tulis}}). It allows the creation of very fine, minute patterns but the process is very labour-intensive. Stamped batik ({{lang|id|batik cap}}) allows more efficient production for larger quantities at the expense of detail.{{cite web |title=Indonesia Batik |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170 |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=21 October 2019 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208025553/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170 |url-status=live }}{{sfn|Handayani et al|2018|pp=237}}

{{see also|Canting}}

Written batik or {{lang|id|batik tulis}} (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀; Pegon: باتيق توليس) is made by writing molten wax on the cloth with a pen-like instrument called a {{lang|id|canting}} ({{IPA|jv|tʃantiŋ}}, old spelling {{lang|id|tjanting}}). It is a small copper reservoir with a spout on a wooden handle. The reservoir holds the resist which flows through the spout, creating dots and lines as it moves. The cloth is then dipped in a dye-bath, and left to dry. The resist is removed by boiling or scraping the cloth. The areas treated with resist keep their original colour; when the resist is removed the contrast between the dyed and undyed areas forms the pattern. The process is repeated as many times as the number of colours desired.{{sfn|Trefois|2010|pp=99}}{{sfn|Gillow|Sentance|2000|p=135}}

File:Tjanting.jpg|A {{lang|id|canting}} in use to draw a resist pattern in molten wax

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Batiksters aan het werk TMnr 20017682.jpg |Written batik, drawing patterns with wax using {{lang|id|canting}} in Java

File:Miao batik 苗族蜡染, Guizhou, 2016 (52411662580).jpg|A {{lang|id|canting}} variant called ladao used by the Miao people of Guizhou

File:Batik-coloracio.jpg| A {{lang|id|canting}} variant used in Sri Lanka for thick outlines

Stamped batik or {{lang|id|batik cap}} (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦕꦥ꧀; Pegon: باتيق چڤ) is batik whose manufacturing process uses a {{lang|id|cap}} ({{IPA|jv|tʃap}}; old spelling {{lang|id|tjap}}) stamp with carved motifs to print an area of the cloth with the resist. The material of the stamp can vary. Medieval Indian stamps tend to use wood. Modern Javanese stamps are made of copper strips and wires, the manufacture of which is a highly skilled process. The rest of the dyeing process is the same as for written batik. The replacement of the {{lang|id|canting}} with the {{lang|id|cap}} reduces the effort needed to make a batik cloth, and hence the cost, but still requires skill.{{cite web |first=Stefanus |last=Ajie |title=Preserving traditional values through stamped batik |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2018/10/07/preserving-traditional-values-through-stamped-batik.html |publisher=The Jakarta Post |access-date=2024-08-30 |date=2018-10-18}}{{sfn|Gillow|Sentance|2000|pp=136–137}}

File:A handmade Batik Cap copper motif printing block.jpg|A handmade Javanese {{lang|id|batik cap}} for stamping patterns, made of copper strips and wires

File:Printing wax-resin resist for Batik with a Tjap, Yogyakarta, 1996.jpg|Hand-stamping batik using a {{lang|id|cap}} in Java

File:Bamako Fabric Stamper (26613476748).jpg|Hand-stamping batik using a {{lang|id|cap}} tool in a Bamako workshop, Mali

Painted batik or {{lang|id|batik lukis}} (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦭꦸꦏꦶꦱ꧀; Pegon: باتيق لوكيس) is a technique of making batik by painting (with or without a template) on a white cloth using a combination of tools such as the {{lang|id|canting}}, brush, cotton, or sticks to apply the resist, according to the painter. Brush application is especially useful to cover large areas of a cloth. Batik painting is a development of traditional batik art, producing contemporary (free) motifs or patterns. It may use more colours that are traditional in written batik.{{cite web |title=Batik Lukis |url=https://www.nafiun.com/2015/03/batik-lukis.html |publisher=www.nafiun.com |access-date=24 January 2021 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930011938/https://www.nafiun.com/2015/03/batik-lukis.html |url-status=live }}

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een batikster tijdens het vervaardigen van een doek met een afbeelding van Rangda TMnr 20018445.jpg |A craftwoman in Yogyakarta making a Rangda wax motif using a brush.

File:Woman with brush painting batik Sri Lanka.JPG |Craftswoman brush painting with wax in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Note the large cover area of the wax

The dyeing process is similar regardless of the wax application technique. Waxed cloths are dipped in vats of dye according to the desired colour. Wax is then scraped off or removed by boiling water, leaving a patterned negative on the cloth. The wax application and dyeing are repeated as necessary. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, dyeing is one of the more technically complicated production stages, for several reasons. Natural dyes, mostly vegetal, do not always produce consistent colours between batches. Dyers must take into account how different dye shades interact when cloths go through multiple stages of dyeing with different colours. Many dyers use proprietary dye recipes for this reason, using locally sourced plant materials. Natural dyes also take longer to produce deep shades of colour, extending the dyeing process.{{sfn |Elliott |1984|pp=56-59}} Synthetic dyes greatly simplify the process, but produce chemical waste that may be harmful for the environment. Eco-friendliness is one reason some batik producers opt to use natural dyes, despite the availability of synthetic alternatives.{{sfn|Handayani et al|2018}}{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2013}}{{sfn|Trefois|2010}}

{{further|Indonesian batik patterns}}

The patterns of batik textiles are particular to the time, place, and culture of their producers. In textile scholarship, most studies have focused on Indonesian batik patterns, as these drew from a wide range of cultural influences and are often symbolically rich. Some patterns are said to have loaded meanings and deep philosophies, with their use reserved for special occasions or groups of peoples (e.g. nobles, royalties).{{sfn |Elliott |1984|pp=68-69}} However, some scholars have cautioned that existing literature on Indonesian textiles over-romanticises and exoticises the purported meanings behind relatively mundane patterns.{{sfn|Barnes et al|2020|pp=4-5}} Some batik patterns (even if they are technically demanding and intricate) were created to satisfy market demand and fashion trends.{{sfn|Brussel|2021|pp=25-26}}{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2016}}

{{main|African wax prints}}

African wax prints were introduced during the colonial era, through the Dutch textile industry's effort to imitate the batik-making process. The imitation was not successful in Indonesian market, but was welcomed in West and Central Africa.{{sfn|Lemi|2024|pp=3}}{{Cite book |title=The origin of the Wax Block Prints on the Coast of West Africa |last=Kroese |first=W.T. |publisher=Smit |year=1976 |isbn=9062895018 |location=Hengelo}}{{Cite book |title=The Essential Art of African Textiles: Design Without End |last=LaGamma |first=Alisa |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2009 |location=New York |page=20}} Nelson Mandela was a noted wearer of {{lang|jv|batik}} during his lifetime. Mandela regularly wore patterned loose-fitting shirt to many business and political meetings during 1994–1999 and after his tenure as President of South Africa, subsequently dubbed as a Madiba shirt based on Mandela's Xhosa clan name.{{sfn|Grant|Nodoba|2009|p=361}} There are many who claim the Madiba shirt's invention. According to Yusuf Surtee, a clothing-store owner who supplied Mandela with outfits for decades, the Madiba design is based on Mandela's request for a shirt similar to Indonesian president Suharto's {{lang|jv|batik}} attire.{{sfn|Smith|2014|p=103}}

File:Fabric - Yunnan Nationalities Museum - DSC04148 (cropped).JPG baby-carrying quilt]]

Batik is made by ethnic peoples in the South-West of China, and in neighbouring countries including Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, especially by hill tribes. The technique requires a ladao knife with two copper triangles mounted in a bamboo handle. Molten wax is held between the triangles, and can then be dripped from the knife to form a resist pattern on the cloth. Some ladao knives have more than two triangles, holding more wax and creating thicker lines.{{sfn|Gillow|Sentance|2000|pp=132–133}} The Miao, Bouyei and Gejia people use a dye resist method for some of their traditional costumes. Almost all the Miao decorate hemp and cotton by applying hot wax, and then dipping the cloth in an indigo dye. The cloth is then used for skirts, panels on jackets, aprons and baby carriers. Like the Javanese, their traditional patterns contain symbolism; the patterns include the dragon, phoenix, and flowers.{{cite journal |last1=Zhennan |first1=L. |last2=Yahaya |first2=S. R. |year=2021 |title=An Aesthetic Study on Traditional Batik Design of Miao Ethnicity in China |journal=KUPAS SENI: Jurnal Seni Dan Pendidikan Seni |volume=9 |issue=2|pages=12–25|url=https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/JSPS/article/view/5320|doi=10.37134/kupasseni.vol9.2.2.2021|url-access=subscription }}{{cite web |website=The Batik Guild |last=Gaffney |first=Diane |title=Batik in China and South-east Asia |url=https://www.batikguild.org.uk/batik/china}}{{cite book |last=Ka |first=Bo Tsang |title=Touched by Indigo: Chinese Blue-and-White Textiles and Embroidery |publisher=Royal Ontario Museum |place=Ontario |year=2005 |chapter=Pattern-dyed fabrics: Wax-resist |url=https://www.rom.on.ca/sites/default/files/imce/touchedbyindigo_original.pdf|pages=26–33}}

Indians use resist-dyeing with cotton fabrics. Initially, wax and even rice starch were used for printing on fabrics. Until recently {{lang |jv |batik}} was made only for dresses and tailored garments, but modern {{lang |jv |batik}} is applied in numerous items, such as murals, wall hangings, paintings, household linen, and scarves, with livelier and brighter patterns. Contemporary {{lang |jv |batik}} making in India is done by the deaf women of Delhi, who are fluent in Indian Sign Language and work in other vocational programs.{{cite book |last1=Burch |first1=Susan |last2=Kaferq |first2=Alison |title=Deaf and Disability Studies |year=2010 |publisher=GU Press |location=Washington D.C |isbn=978-1-56368-464-7 |page=52 |url=https://archive.org/details/deafdisabilityst0000unse/page/52}}

{{main|Batik in Indonesia}}

File:Festival dancers in batik, Surakarta.jpg|Dancers of Bedhaya, a royal dance from the palace of Surakarta, wearing costume with prescribed batik patterns

File:Kebaya 1.jpg|Batik sarongs with a variety of patterns worn freely according to individual taste

Batik plays multiple roles in the culture of Indonesia, especially in Javanese culture. The wax resist-dyeing technique has been used for centuries in Java, where certain motifs had symbolic meaning and prescribed use, indicating a person's level in society.{{cite journal |url=https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/article/view/5143 |journal= Paramita: Historical Studies Journal |year=2016 |doi=10.15294/paramita.v26i1.5143 |archive-date=29 September 2021 |last1=Maziyah |first1=Siti |last2=Mahirta |first2=Mahirta |last3=Atmosudiro |first3=Sumijati |title=Makna Simbolis Batik Pada Masyarakat Jawa Kuna |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=23–32 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929235254/https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/article/view/5143 |url-status=live }} It is an essential component in the attires of Javanese royal palaces,{{cite web |title=Sejarah Batik Indonesia |url=https://jabarprov.go.id/index.php/pages/id/300 |publisher=Government of West Java |access-date=9 February 2021 |archive-date=12 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212214843/https://jabarprov.go.id/index.php/pages/id/300 |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Syed Shaharuddin |first1=Sharifah Imihezri |last2=Shamsuddin |first2=Maryam Samirah |last3=Drahman |first3=Mohd Hafiz |last4=Hasan |first4=Zaimah |last5=Mohd Asri |first5=Nurul Anissa |last6=Nordin |first6=Ahmad Amri |last7=Shaffiar |first7=Norhashimah Mohd |title=A Review on the Malaysian and Indonesian Batik Production, Challenges, and Innovations in the 21st Century |journal=SAGE Open |date=Jul 2021 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=215824402110401 |doi=10.1177/21582440211040128|doi-access=free }} worn by monarchs, nobilities, abdi (palace staff), guards, and dancers.{{sfn|Wijanarko|2021}}{{sfn|Smend et al|2013}} On the other hand, there are non-ceremonial batik which has long been treated as a trade commodity, with usage that are determined by taste, fashion, and affordability. Today in Indonesia, batik pattern is commonly seen on shirts, dresses, and other everyday attire.{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2013}}{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2016}}{{sfn|Brussel|2021|pp=25-26}}

On 2 October 2009, UNESCO recognized written batik ({{lang|id|batik tulis}}) and stamped batik ({{lang|id|batik cap}}) as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity from Indonesia. Since then, Indonesia has celebrated a Batik Day ({{lang|id|Hari Batik Nasional}}) annually on 2 October. In the same year, UNESCO recognized education and training in Indonesian Batik as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.{{Cite web |title=Education and training in Indonesian Batik intangible cultural heritage for elementary, junior, senior, vocational school and polytechnic students, in collaboration with the Batik Museum in Pekalongan |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/BSP/education-and-training-in-indonesian-batik-intangible-cultural-heritage-for-elementary-junior-senior-vocational-school-and-polytechnic-students-in-collaboration-with-the-batik-museum-in-pekalongan-00318 |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208035305/https://ich.unesco.org/en/BSP/education-and-training-in-indonesian-batik-intangible-cultural-heritage-for-elementary-junior-senior-vocational-school-and-polytechnic-students-in-collaboration-with-the-batik-museum-in-pekalongan-00318 |url-status=live}}

{{main|Malaysian batik}}

File:Malaysian Batik.jpg

Trade relations between the Malay kingdoms in Sumatra and Malay peninsula with Javanese coastal cities have thrived since the 13th century. The northern coastal batik-producing areas of Java (Cirebon, Lasem, Tuban, and Madura) have influenced Jambi batik,{{cite book |title=Batik Jambi: Melintas Masa |last1=Sunarto |first1=Azmiah Edi |last2=Priyono |first2=Bagus |year=2014 |place=Jakarta |publisher=Rumah Batik Azmiah}} which, along with Javanese batik, subsequently influenced the craft in the Malay Peninsula.{{cite magazine |title=Busana dan Aksesori Nusantara |magazine=National Geographic Traveller Indonesia |volume=1 |issue=6 |date=September 2009 |page=54}} Later, in the 1920s, a new influx of Javanese batik makers introduced stamped batik to the peninsula.{{sfn|Shaharuddin et al|2021}} The batik industry today provides significant benefit to the Malaysian economy, and the Malaysian government supports efforts to promote their own artisans and their products abroad.{{sfn|Hajura |2022|pp=88}}

Fiona Kerlogue, of the Horniman museum, noted several differences between Malaysian batik and traditional Indonesian batik. Malaysian batik patterns tend to be larger and simpler, making only occasional use of the {{lang|id|canting}} for intricate patterns. They rely heavily on brush painting to apply colours to fabrics. The colours are usually lighter and more vibrant than the deep-coloured Javanese batik popular in Indonesia. The most popular motifs are leaves and flowers; Malaysian batik often displays plants and flowers to avoid the interpretation of human and animal images as idolatry, in accordance with local Islamic doctrine.{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm |title=Figural Representation in Islamic Art |work=metmuseum.org |date=October 2001 |access-date=24 February 2010 |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209083853/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm |url-status=live}} Despite these differences, confusion between Malaysian and Indonesian batik has led to some disputes in the Indonesia-Malaysia bilateral relations.{{cite news |last=Collins |first=Nick |title=Indonesians tell Malaysians 'Hands off our batik' |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/6251806/Indonesians-tell-Malaysians-Hands-off-our-batik.html |access-date=4 October 2017 |date =5 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004173222/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/6251806/Indonesians-tell-Malaysians-Hands-off-our-batik.html |archive-date=4 October 2017 }}{{efn|Cultural claims of batik (especially its purported "origins") is one of the disputes that has come up time to time. Malaysian made batik are prone to be accused as cultural appropriation by some Indonesian sources, while some Malaysian sources countered that these accusations only came up because Indonesian government were negligent in supporting their own batik industry and heritage.{{sfn|Hajura |2022|pp=89}}}}

{{main|Batik industry in Sri Lanka}}

Over the past century, {{lang |jv |batik}} making in Sri Lanka has become firmly established. The {{lang |jv |batik}} industry in Sri Lanka is a small scale industry which can employ individual design talent. It mainly deals with foreign customers for profit. In the 21st century, it has become the most visible of the island's crafts; galleries and factories, large and small, have sprung up in many tourist areas. For example, rows of small batik stalls can be found all along Hikkaduwa's Galle Road strip. Mahawewa, on the other hand, is famous for its {{lang |jv |batik}} factories.{{cite web |url=https://us.lakpura.com/pages/batik |title=Sri Lankan Batik Textiles |publisher=Lakpura Travels |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130102819/https://us.lakpura.com/pages/batik |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2012/06/10/fea05.asp |title=Brighter future for batik industry |publisher=Sunday Observer (Sri Lanka) |date=10 June 2012 |access-date=1 May 2014 |last=Kannangara |first=Ananda |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502003257/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2012/06/10/fea05.asp |archive-date=2 May 2014 |df=dmy-all }}

{{div col |colwidth=23em}}

• Bagh print
• Balinese textiles
• Folk costume
• Tenun
• Ikat
• Malong
• National costume of Indonesia
• Screen printing
• Songket
• Textile printing
• T'nalak
• Tsutsugaki, Japanese resist-dyeing using starch, not wax

{{div col end}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist |30em}}

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• {{cite journal |last1=Lemi |first1=Ladu D. M. |title=Commemorative textiles: an African narrative of identity and power |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |year=2024 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=537 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03051-z |ref= |doi-access=free}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Sardjono |first1=Sandra |last2=Buckley |first2=Christopher |title=A 700-years old blue-and-white batik from Indonesia |ref={{sfnref |Sardjono & Buckley |2022}} |journal=Fiber, Loom and Technique: The Journal of the Tracing Patterns Foundation|year=2022 |volume=1 |pages=64–78 |url=https://fltjournal.libraryhost.com/index.php/flt/article/view/7/6}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Shaharuddin |first1=Sharifah Imihezri Syed |last2=Shamsuddin |first2=Maryam Samirah |last3=Drahman |first3=Mohd Hafiz |last4=Hasan |first4=Zaimah |last5=Asri |first5=Nurul Anissa Mohd |last6=Nordin |first6=Ahmad Amri |last7=Shaffiar |first7=Norhashimah Mohd |title=A Review on the Malaysian and Indonesian Batik Production, Challenges, and Innovations in the 21st Century |ref={{sfnref |Shaharuddin et al |2021}} |journal=SAGE Open |year=2021 |volume=11 |issue=3 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211040128 |doi=10.1177/21582440211040128|doi-access=free }}
• {{cite book |last1=Shen |first1=Yuexiu |last2=Wong |first2=Mei Sheong |editor1=James Bennett |editor2=Russel Kelty |year=2023 |title=Interwoven Journeys: the Michael Abbott Collections of Asian Art |chapter=Qilin, Rabbit and Pencils: Batik Tokwi from Northcoast Java |place=Adelaide |publisher=Art Gallery of South Australia (AGSA) |ref={{sfnref |Shen & Wong |2023}} }}
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• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx3dAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT103 |title=How to Think Like Mandela |year=2014 |publisher=Michael O'Mara |isbn=9781782432401}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sumarsono |first1=Hartono |last2=Ishwara |first2=Helen |last3=Yahya |first3=L.R. Supriyapto |last4=Moeis |first4= Xeni |year=2016 |title=Batik Garutan: Koleksi Hartono Sumarsono |place=Jakarta |publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia |isbn=978-602-6208-09-5 |ref={{sfnref |Sumarsono et al |2016}}}}
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• {{commons category-inline}}
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wylWYSHkzoQ UNESCO: Indonesian Batik, Representative of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity – 2009]
• [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/58864 Early Indonesian textiles from three island cultures: Sumba, Toraja, Lampung], exhibition catalogue from Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
• [http://www.expat.or.id/info/batik.html Batik, the Traditional Fabric of Indonesia], an article about batik from Living in Indonesia
• [https://www.iwarebatik.org/ iWareBatik |Indonesian Batik Textile Heritage] A website devoted to Batik, Indonesian Textile enlisted by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage. It links Batik production with Tourism and Fashion in Indonesia
• [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73820 Batiks, and how to make them] (1919) by Pieter Mijer through New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, Inc.

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