Indonesia

{{Main|Names of Indonesia}}

File:1855 Colton Map of the East Indies (Singapore, Thailand, Borneo, Malaysia) - Geographicus - EastIndies-colton-1855.jpg

The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words {{lang|grc-Latn|Indos}} ({{lang|grc|Ἰνδός}}) and {{lang|grc|nesos}} ({{lang|grc|νῆσος}}), meaning "Indian islands".{{cite book|last1=Tomascik|first1=Tomas|last2=Mah|first2=Anmarie Janice|last3=Nontji|first3=Anugerah|last4=Moosa|first4=Mohammad Kasim|title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-078-7}} The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago".{{sfn|Earl|1850|p=119}}{{cite web|url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm|title=The origin of Indonesia's name|last=Anshory|first=Irfan|publisher=Pikiran Rakyat|language=id|date=16 August 2004|access-date=15 December 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130112115743/http://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm|archive-date=12 January 2013}} In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.{{cite journal|last=Logan|first=James Richardson|title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1850|volume=4|pages=252–347}}{{sfn|Earl|1850|pp=254, 277–278}} Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago ({{langx|nl|Maleische Archipel}}); the Netherlands East Indies ({{lang|nl|Nederlandsch Oost Indië}}), popularly {{lang|nl|Indië}}; the East ({{lang|nl|de Oost}}); and {{lang|nl|Insulinde}}.{{cite journal|title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|first=Justus M|last=van der Kroef|volume=71|issue=3|pages=166–171|year=1951|doi=10.2307/595186|jstor=595186|issn=0003-0279}}

After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book {{lang|de|Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894|italic=yes}}. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, {{lang|nl|Indonesisch Pers-bureau}}, in 1913.

{{Main|History of Indonesia}}

{{Main|Prehistoric Indonesia}}

File:Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave painting of Bull.jpgs, a depiction of a bull, was discovered in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave dated as 40,000 to 44,000 years old.]]

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of homo erectus or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE.{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first=G.G.|title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=17|pages=43–77|year=1988|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R.E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A.A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=309–412}}{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first=G.G.|title=Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=80|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1983|pmid=6410399|doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988|pmc=384173|bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=de Vos|first1=J.P.|last2=Sondaar|first2=P.Y.|title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia|journal=Science|volume=266|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1994|doi=10.1126/science.7992059|bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D|doi-access=free}} Fossils of homo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while homo sapiens arrived around 43,000 BCE.{{cite journal|author=Brown, P.|display-authors=etal|author2=Sutikna, T.|author3=Morwood, M. J.|author4=Soejono, R. P.|author5=Jatmiko|author6=Wayhu Saptomo, E.|author7=Rokus Awe Due|date=27 October 2004|title=A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia|journal=Nature|pmid=15514638|volume=431|issue=7012|doi=10.1038/nature02999|pages=1055–1061|bibcode=2004Natur.431.1055B|s2cid=26441|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/15287/files/PAL_E2586.pdf}}{{cite journal|last1=Brumm|first1=Adam|last2=Jensen|first2=Gitte M.|last3=van den Bergh|first3=Gert D.|last4=Morwood|first4=Michael J.|last5=Kurniawan|first5=Iwan|last6=Aziz|first6=Fachroel|last7=Storey|first7=Michael|year=2010|title=Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago|journal=Nature|volume=464|issue=7289|pages=748–752|bibcode=2010Natur.464..748B|doi=10.1038/nature08844|issn=0028-0836|pmid=20237472|s2cid=205219871}}{{cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|title=The Great Human Migration|last=Gugliotta|first=Guy|publisher=Smithsonian Maganize|date=July 2008|access-date=21 August 2011|archive-date=16 September 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170916033329/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-great-human-migration-13561/|url-status=live}} Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years,{{Cite journal|last1=Oktaviana|first1=Adhi Agus|last2=Joannes-Boyau|first2=Renaud|last3=Hakim|first3=Budianto|last4=Burhan|first4=Basran|last5=Sardi|first5=Ratno|last6=Adhityatama|first6=Shinatria|last7=Hamrullah|last8=Sumantri|first8=Iwan|last9=Tang|first9=M.|last10=Lebe|first10=Rustan|last11=Ilyas|first11=Imran|last12=Abbas|first12=Abdullah|last13=Jusdi|first13=Andi|last14=Mahardian|first14=Dewangga Eka|last15=Noerwidi|first15=Sofwan|date=3 July 2024|title=Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago|journal=Nature|volume=631|issue=8022|pages=814–818|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7|issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free|pmid=38961284|pmc=11269172|bibcode=2024Natur.631..814O}}{{Cite web|last=Harris|first=Garreth|date=4 July 2024|title=Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave|url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/07/04/oldest-example-of-figurative-art-found-in-indonesian-cave|access-date=5 July 2024|website=The Art Newspaper|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240705071757/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/07/04/oldest-example-of-figurative-art-found-in-indonesian-cave|archive-date=5 July 2024|url-status=live}} and megalithic sites such as western Java's Gunung Padang, Sulawesi's Lore Lindu, as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.{{cite book|last=Prasetyo|first=Bagyo|url=https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/4657|title=Megalithic: A phenomenon that flourished in Indonesia|date=2015|publisher=Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional|isbn=9786020818252|location=Jakarta|page=61}}

Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island now known as Taiwan, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east,{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}} and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=8–9}} enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=18–20, 60, 133–134}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=15–18}}

By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. After the failed Mongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under Gajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history.{{cite journal|title=The next great empire|last=Lewis|first=Peter|journal=Futures|volume=14|issue=1|year=1982|pages=47–61|doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}} Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra,{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=3–14}} and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}

{{Main|Dutch East Indies}}

File:Nicolaas Pieneman - The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock.jpg to General De Kock at the end of the Java War in 1830|alt=]]

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago, led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão, to seek a monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=22–24}} Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602, which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony,{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=24}} marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and fighters in Aceh.{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=142}}{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=21}} Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century,{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=21}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=61–147}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=209–278}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=10–14}} with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.{{Cite book|author=Bilveer Singh|title=Papua: geopolitics and the quest for nationhood|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2008|page=26|url=https://www.routledge.com/Papua-Geopolitics-and-the-Quest-for-Nationhood/Singh/p/book/9781138512948|isbn=978-1-4128-1206-1}}

During World War II, the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies ended Dutch rule{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{cite journal|title=Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves|journal=Eighteenth-Century Studies|volume=31|issue=3|author1=Gert Oostindie|author2=Bert Paasman|pages=349–355|year=1998|doi=10.1353/ecs.1998.0021|url=https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf|hdl=20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092|s2cid=161921454|hdl-access=free|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922033534/https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2017|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|title=Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle for Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45|publisher=Library of Congress|date=November 1992|access-date=11 February 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120022843/https://web.archive.org/web/20130821095117/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029)|archive-date=20 January 2025}} and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement.Robert Elson, The idea of Indonesia: A history (2008) pp 1–12 Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=325}}{{cite journal|title=Indonesia|author=H. J. Van Mook|author-link=Hubertus Johannes van Mook|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|date=1949|volume=25|issue=3|pages=274–285|doi=10.2307/3016666|jstor=3016666}}{{cite journal|title=Independence the Issue|journal=Far Eastern Survey|author=Charles Bidien|volume=14|issue=24|pages=345–348|date=5 December 1945|doi=10.2307/3023219|jstor=3023219}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=325}} The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949, when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}} Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=21, 23}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=211–213}}

{{multiple image

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|image1 = Presiden Sukarno.jpg

|image2 = Mohammad Hatta, Pekan Buku Indonesia 1954, p242.jpg

|footer = Sukarno (left) and Mohammad Hatta (right), Indonesia's founding fathers and the first president and vice president respectively}}

Sukarno shifted Indonesia from democracy to authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam, the military, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=237–280}} Tensions between the latter two culminated in an attempted coup in 1965, leading to a violent anti-communist purge led by the Army's Major General Suharto that killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more.{{sfn|Melvin|2018|p=1}}{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=3}}{{cite journal|title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966|author=Robert Cribb|journal=Asian Survey|volume=42|issue=4|date=2002|pages=550–563|doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550|s2cid=145646994}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|title=Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light|publisher=BBC|date=17 October 2017|access-date=19 September 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20181118225021/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|archive-date=18 November 2018}}{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=168, 185}} The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed,{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=107–109}}{{cite video|people=Chris Hilton (writer and director)|title=Shadowplay|medium=Television documentary|publisher=Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions|year=2001}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=280–283, 284, 287–290}} weakening Sukarno's power. Suharto capitalised on this, becoming President in 1968 and establishing a US-backed "New Order" administration,{{cite journal|title=General Suharto's New Order|author=John D. Legge|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|volume=44|issue=1|year=1968|pages=40–47|jstor=2613527|doi=10.2307/2613527}}{{sfn|Melvin|2018|pp=9-10}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=163}}David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North–South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70 which fostered foreign direct investment{{cite journal|last=Farid|first=Hilmar|date=2005|title=Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66|journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies|volume=6|issue=1|pages=3–16|doi=10.1080/1462394042000326879|s2cid=145130614}}{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=206}}{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=167–168}} and drove three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia was the country worst affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis,{{cite book|last=Delhaise|first=Philippe F.|title=Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems|publisher=Willey|year=1998|page=123|isbn=978-0-471-83450-2}} which brought out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: from showcase to basket case|author=Jonathan Pincus|author2=Rizal Ramli|journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics|volume=22|issue=6|pages=723–734|date=1998|doi=10.1093/cje/22.6.723}} In 1999, East Timor seceded after a controversial 25-year occupation following Indonesia's 1975 invasion.{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor|title=Situation of human rights in East Timor|publisher=Relief Web|date=10 December 1999|access-date=20 November 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120024017/https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor|archive-date=20 January 2025}}{{cite web|last=Burr|first=W.|title=East Timor Revisited, Ford, Kissinger, and the Indonesian Invasion, 1975–76|work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62|publisher=National Security Archive, George Washington University|location=Washington, DC|date=6 December 2001|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20191127081609/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-date=27 November 2019|access-date=17 September 2006}} Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004.{{cite journal|last1=Dagg|first1=Christopher J.|title=The 2004 elections in Indonesia: Political reform and democratisation|journal=Asia Pacific Viewpoint|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=April 2007|volume=48|issue=1|pages=47–59|doi=10.22146/ijg.12792}}

Political, economic and social instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s.{{cite journal|last=R. William|first=Liddle|title=Indonesia in 2000: A Shaky Start for Democracy|journal=Asian Survey|publisher=University of California Press|date=1 February 2001|volume=41|issue=1|pages=208–220|doi=10.1525/as.2001.41.1.208}}{{cite journal|last=Julie Chernov|first=Hwang|title=Terrorism in Perspective: An Assessment of 'Jihad Project' Trends in Indonesia|journal=Asia Pacific Issues|publisher=East-West Center|date=September 2012|number=104|issn=1522-0966}} The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although corruption remains a chronic issue.{{cite book|last1=Mukartono|first1=Ali|last2=Hartiwiningsih|first2=Hartiwiningsih|last3=Rustamaji|first3=Muhammad|chapter=The Development of Corruption in Indonesia (Is Corruption a Culture of Indonesia?)|title=Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Globalization of Law and Local Wisdom (ICGLOW 2019)|series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research|publisher=Atlantis Press|date=October 2019|volume=358|doi=10.2991/icglow-19.2019.36|isbn=978-94-6252-819-2 }} Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.{{cite book|last=Harsono|first=Andreas|title=Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia|publisher=Monash University Publishing|date=May 2019|isbn=978-1-925835-09-0}} A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.{{citation|last1=Parks|first1=Thomas|display-authors=etal|title=The Contested Corners of Asia: Subnational Conflict and International Development Assistance|chapter=The Case of Aceh, Indonesia|publisher=The Asia Foundation|date=7 October 2013|isbn=978-616-91408-1-8}}

{{Main|Geography of Indonesia|Indonesian archipelago|List of islands of Indonesia}}

File:Bromo-Semeru-Batok-Widodaren.jpg and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest]]

The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is also a transcontinental country, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching {{convert|5120|km|0}} from east to west and {{convert|1760|km|0}} from north to south.{{Cite book|last1=Frederick|first1=William H.|last2=Worden|first2=Robert L.|title=Indonesia: A Country Study|series=Area Handbook Series|volume=550|date=1993|page=98|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|language=en|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6}} The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.{{cite journal|last1=Sukendra|first1=Martha|title=The Analysis of Geospatial Information for Validating Some Numbers of Islands in Indonesia|journal=Indonesian Journal of Geography|date=December 2017|volume=49|number=2|pages=204–211|doi=10.22146/ijg.12792}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/|title=The World Factbook: Indonesia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|date=29 April 2025|access-date=8 May 2025}} Its five largest islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).{{cite web|url=https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|title=Facts & Figures|publisher=Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, D.C.|access-date=14 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120032221/https://web.archive.org/web/20170606054934/https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|archive-date=20 January 2025}}

The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At {{convert|4884|m|ft}}, Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering {{convert|1,145|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.{{cite journal|last1=Lubis|first1=M.S.|last2=Susanto|first2=D.|last3=Harjoko|first3=T.Y.|title=Understanding Riverine Urbanism in Kalimantan through Diachronic Approach: Case Study of Lanting Settlements in Sintang, Indonesia|journal=Journal of Architectural Design and Urbanism|publisher=ISOMAse|date=25 October 2021|volume=4|number=1|pages=12–26|doi=10.14710/jadu.v4i1.12133|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Climate of Indonesia|Climate change in Indonesia}}

File:Gunung Palung Jungle.jpg, West Kalimantan]]

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round,{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|title=Climate: Observations, projections and impacts|publisher=Met Office Hadley Centre|access-date=16 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816111123/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|archive-date=16 August 2017}} characterised by two main seasons: the dry season from May to October and the wet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter.{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|title=Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies|publisher=World Bank|access-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202326/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2016}} The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over {{convert|1300|to|1,500|m|ft|abbr=off}} above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is more pronounced during the dry season.{{Cite web|title=Indonesia's Climate and Precipitation|url=https://indonesia.mfa.gov.ir/en/generalcategoryservices/13009/indonesia.mfa.gov.ir|access-date=29 March 2024|website=indonesia.mfa.gov.ir|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits,{{cite journal|title=Remote energy sources for mixing in the Indonesian Seas|journal=Nature Communications|last1=Pang|first1=C.|last2=Nikurashin|first2=M.|last3=Pena-Molino|first3=B.|display-authors=etal|volume=13|number=6535|date=1 November 2022|doi=10.1038/s41467-022-34046-6}} rather than typhoons or storms.

File:Koppen-Geiger Map IDN present.svg map of Indonesia{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}|alt=]]

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change,{{cite report|title=Climate Change in the Indonesian Mind|date=3 October 2023|last1=Leiserowitz|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|work=Yale Program on Climate Change Communication|publisher=Yale School of the Environment}} including a temperature rise of {{cvt|1.5|C-change|0}} by 2050 due to unreduced emissions.{{cite report|url=https://www.g20climaterisks.org/indonesia/|last1=Mercogliano|first1=Paola|last2=Reder|first2=Alfredo|last3=Ellena|first3=Marta|display-authors=etal|year=2021|title=G20 Climate Risk Atlas. Impacts, policy and economics in the G20|doi=10.25424/cmcc/g20_climaterisk}}{{cite web|title=Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature|url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|vauthors=Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E|publisher=WWF|date=14 November 2007|access-date=18 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219103237/http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|archive-date=19 February 2018|url-status=live}} This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten densely populated coastal regions,{{Cite web|url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood|date=29 October 2019|publisher=Climate Central|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20211225030823/https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|archive-date=25 December 2021|access-date=5 November 2019}}{{cite journal|last=Widodo|first=A.|title=Analyzing Indonesia's NCICD Project to Stop the Capital City Sinking|journal=Otoritas: Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan|date=October 2017|volume=7|number=2|pages=54–56|doi=10.26618/ojip.v7i2.769}} and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.{{cite web|title=Indonesia: Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile|publisher=World Bank|date=April 2011|url=http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|access-date=18 November 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206014747/http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2017}}

File:Lake Toba and the surrounding hills.jpg in North Sumatra, the world's largest volcanic lake. Indonesia is located in the Pacific Ring of Fire area]]

{{Main|Geology of Indonesia}} {{See also|List of volcanoes in Indonesia}}

Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates subduct beneath the Eurasian plate, where they melt at about {{convert|100|km|abbr=off}} deep. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897|title=Indonesia: Volcano nation|publisher=BBC|date=5 November 2015|access-date=28 November 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120033238/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897|archive-date=20 January 2025}} A chain of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra through Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.{{sfn|Witton|2003|p=38}} Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. While volcanic ash has made agriculture unpredictable in some areas,{{cite web|url=http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf|title=Volcanic activity and environment: Impacts on agriculture and use of geological data to improve recovery processes|author=Sylviane L. G. Lebon|publisher=University of Iceland|date=January 2009|access-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203025/http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2016}} it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R. E.|author3=Suraya A. A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=95–97}} Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions.{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 10|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2007|page=1306|isbn=978-0-7614-7631-3}}

The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A massive supervolcano erupted with a maximum volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8 at present-day Lake Toba around 74,000 BCE, causing a global volcanic winter, cooling the climate, and possibly influencing human evolution.{{cite journal|last1=Ge|first1=Yong|last2=Gao|first2=Xing|title=Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins|journal=Quaternary International|date=10 September 2020|volume=559|pages=24–33|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021|bibcode=2020QuInt.559...24G}} The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.{{cite journal|last1=Gertisser|first1=Ralf|last2=Self|first2=Stephen|title=The great 1815 eruption of Tambora and future risks from large-scale volcanism|publisher=Wiley Online Library|journal=Geology Today|date=31 July 2015|volume=31|issue=4|pages=132–136|doi=10.1111/gto.12099|bibcode=2015GeolT..31..132G}} The eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional effects around the world years after the event.{{cite journal|last=Harbowo|first=Danni Gathot|title=An Assessment of the Scientific Value of Krakatoa, Indonesia from a Geoheritage Perspective|journal=Journal of Applied Geoscience and Engineering|date=30 June 2023|volume=2|number=1|pages=11–25|doi=10.34312/jage.v2i1.19360|doi-broken-date=13 February 2025}} Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.{{cite journal|last1=Rachmatin|first1=Dewi|last2=Hidayat|first2=Asep Syarif|last3=Priatna Martadiputra|first3=Bambang Avip|title=Analysis of Characteristics of Earthquake Area in Indonesia in 2020 with Cluster Analysis as Natural Disaster|journal=International Journal of Science and Research|date=November 2020|volume=9|issue=11|pages=1243–1250|doi=10.21275/SR201122121148|doi-broken-date=23 March 2025 }}

{{Main|Fauna of Indonesia|Flora of Indonesia|Environment of Indonesia}}

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300

|image1=Rafflesia arnoldi 2013-12-31 21-48.JPG

|image2=Man of the woods.JPG

|image3=Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).jpg

|image4=Paradisaea apoda -Bali Bird Park-6.jpg

|footer=Species endemic to Indonesia. Clockwise from top: Rafflesia arnoldii, orangutan, greater bird-of-paradise, and Komodo dragon}}

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species.{{cite journal|last=Brody|first=Jedediah F.|display-authors=etal|title=Crossing the (Wallace) line: local abundance and distribution of mammals across biogeographic barriers|journal=Biotropica|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=24 August 2017|volume=50|issue=1|pages=116–124|doi=10.1111/btp.12485}} The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Henderson|first2=G.|last3=Mustafa|first3=M.|title=The Ecology of Sulawesi|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-075-6}}{{cite book|last1=Monk|first1=K.A.|last2=Fretes|first2=Y.|last3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley|first3=G.|title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-076-3}} In terms of total endemic species, the Indonesian archipelago ranks among the highest globally.{{cite journal|last=Voigt|first=Maria|display-authors=etal|title=Emerging threats from deforestation and forest fragmentation in the Wallacea centre of endemism|journal=Environmental Research Letters|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=7 September 2021|volume=16|number=9|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ac15cd|bibcode=2021ERL....16i4048V }}

The country also boasts {{convert|80000|km|mi|abbr=off}} of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with over 2,000 species.{{cite journal|last1=Sari|first1=Keysa Puspita|last2=Putri|first2=Cinta Radila|last3=Ningsih|first3=Kiki Afriana|last4=Edelwis|first4=T.W.|last5=Alexis|first5=Andrew|title=Colorful Life on Indonesia's: Coral Reefs Reveals Fish|journal=BIO Web of Conferences|publisher=EDP Sciences|date=28 October 2024|volume=134|number=6013|page=06013 |doi=10.1051/bioconf/202413406013|doi-access=free}} The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago.{{cite book|last=Wallace|first=A.R.|title=The Malay Archipelago|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=2000|orig-date=1869|isbn=978-962-593-645-1}}{{cite book|last=Severin|first=Tim|title=The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace|publisher=Abacus Travel|year=1997|location=Great Britain|isbn=978-0-349-11040-0}} Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests,{{Cite journal|last1=Estoque|first1=Ronald C.|last2=Ooba|first2=Makoto|last3=Avitabile|first3=Valerio|last4=Hijioka|first4=Yasuaki|last5=DasGupta|first5=Rajarshi|last6=Togawa|first6=Takuya|last7=Murayama|first7=Yuji|date=23 April 2019|title=The future of Southeast Asia's forests|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|page=1829|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09646-4|pmid=31015425|issn=2041-1723|pmc=6478739|bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1829E}} are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.

Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation,{{cite journal|last1=Santoro|first1=Antonio|last2=Piras|first2=Francesco|last3=Yu|first3=Qingyi|title=Spatial analysis of deforestation in Indonesia in the period 1950–2017 and the role of protected areas|publisher=Springer Nature Link|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|date=17 July 2023|doi=10.1007/s10531-023-02679-8|hdl=2158/1323316|hdl-access=free}} peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s, and in most recent years, palm oil.{{cite journal|last1=Austin|first1=Kemen G|last2=Schwantes|first2=Amanda|last3=Gu|first3=Yaofeng|last4=Kasibhatla|first4=Prasad D|date=1 February 2019|title=What causes deforestation in Indonesia?|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|issue=2|page=024007|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db|bibcode=2019ERL....14b4007A|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal|last1=Limaho|first1=Handoko|author2=Sugiarto|last3=Pramono|first3=Rudy|last4=Christiawan|first4=Rio|date=14 July 2022|title=The Need for Global Green Marketing for the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia|journal=Sustainability|volume=14|issue=14|page=8621|doi=10.3390/su14148621|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022Sust...14.8621L}}{{cite book|first1=Marcus|last1=Colchester|display-authors=etal|title=Promised Land: Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia - Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples|publisher=Forest Peoples Programme|date=6 November 2006|isbn=979-15188-0-7}} Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=ID|title=Forest area (% of land area) – Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=19 January 2025}}{{cite journal|last1=Tsujino|first1=Riyou|last2=Yumoto|first2=Takakazu|last3=Kitamura|first3=Shumpei|last4=Djamaluddin|first4=Ibrahim|last5=Darnaedi|first5=Dedy|date=November 2016|title=History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=57|pages=335–347|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034|bibcode=2016LUPol..57..335T}} highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.{{cite journal|last=Adinugroho|first=W.C.|title=Contribution of forest degradation in Indonesia's GHG emissions: Profile and opportunity to improve its estimation accuracy|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=2019|volume=399|number=12025|page=012025 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/399/1/012025|bibcode=2019E&ES..399a2025A |doi-access=free}} These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.{{cite journal|last=Setyadharma|first=A.|title=The trade-off between Poverty and Environmental Degradation: Evidence from Indonesia|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=2020|volume=448|number=12065|page=012065 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/448/1/012065|bibcode=2020E&ES..448a2065S |doi-access=free}} They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna,{{cite iucn|author=BirdLife International|title=Leucopsar rothschildi|volume=2016|page=e.T22710912A94267053|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en}} Sumatran orangutan,{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger|title=Extinction crisis escalates: Red List shows apes, corals, vultures, dolphins all in danger|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature|date=12 September 2007|access-date=16 October 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120040518/https://iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger|archive-date=20 January 2025}} and Javan rhinoceros.{{Cite iucn|last1=van Strien|first1=N.J.|display-authors=etal|title=Rhinoceros sondaicus|volume=2008|page=e.T19495A8925965|date=2008|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en}} Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.{{cite book|last1=Aida|first1=Melly|last2=Muthalib Tahar|first2=Abdul|last3=Davey|first3=Orima|chapter=Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia |series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |title=Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022)|publisher=Atlantis Press|date=2 May 2023|volume=740 |pages=572–584 |doi=10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57|isbn=978-2-38476-045-9 }}{{cite journal|last1=Setiyono|first1=Joko|last2=Natalis|first2=Aga|date=30 December 2021|title=Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning|language=en|volume=16|issue=8|pages=1465–1471|doi=10.18280/ijsdp.160807|s2cid=245606762|issn=1743-7601|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Conservation in Indonesia|Protected areas of Indonesia|List of national parks of Indonesia|List of biosphere reserves of Indonesia}}

File:Bunaken Marine Park.JPG in the Coral Triangle, one of Indonesia's over 100 marine protected areas]]

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.{{Cite journal|last1=Pusparini|first1=Wulan|display-authors=etal|date=16 January 2023|title=A bolder conservation future for Indonesia by prioritising biodiversity, carbon and unique ecosystems in Sulawesi|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=13|issue=1|page=842|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-21536-2|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free|pmid=36646696|pmc=9842766|bibcode=2023NatSR..13..842P}} Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed.{{Cite web|first=Basten|last=Gokkon|date=19 May 2023|title=Study: Indonesia's extensive network of marine reserves are poorly managed|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/indonesia-maritime-marine-reserve-mpa-protected-area-management-funding/|access-date=2 January 2024|website=Mongabay Environmental News|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250122041753/https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/indonesia-maritime-marine-reserve-mpa-protected-area-management-funding/|url-status=live}} Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.{{Cite journal|last1=Estradivari|display-authors=etal|date=1 March 2022|title=Marine conservation beyond MPAs: Towards the recognition of other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) in Indonesia|journal=Marine Policy|volume=137|page=104939|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104939|issn=0308-597X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022MarPo.13704939E}}

Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks,{{cite web|url=http://www.dephut.go.id/uploads/INFORMASI/TN%20INDO-ENGLISH/tn_index.htm|title=National Parks in Indonesia|access-date=5 December 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131205073144/http://www.dephut.go.id/uploads/INFORMASI/TN%20INDO-ENGLISH/tn_index.htm|archive-date=5 December 2013}} with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves{{Cite web|date=October 2013|title=Ecological Sciences for Sustainable Development|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/asia-and-the-pacific/|access-date=22 October 2013|publisher=UNESCO|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250122042227/https://web.archive.org/web/20131028044352/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/asia-and-the-pacific/|url-status=live}} and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.{{cite web|url=http://indonesia.wcs.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=15154&PortalId=137&DownloadMethod=attachment|title=Spatial Analysis to Achieve 20 Million Hectares of Marine Protected Areas by 2020|display-authors=etal|publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society|date=24 December 2013|access-date=5 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095217/http://indonesia.wcs.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=15154&PortalId=137&DownloadMethod=attachment|archive-date=24 December 2013}}

{{Main|Politics of Indonesia}}

{{See also|Government of Indonesia}}

File:Ruang MPR.jpg Jakarta, 2014|alt=]]

Indonesia is a presidential republic. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, sweeping amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining a balance between its unitary state framework and greater decentralisation to regional governments.{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court|last1=Dwi Harijanti|first1=Susi|last2=Lindsey|first2=Tim|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=4|issue=1|pages=138–150|doi=10.1093/icon/moi055|date=1 January 2006|doi-access=free}}{{Citation|last1=Ardiansyah|first1=Fitrian|last2=Marthen|first2=Andri|last3=Amalia|first3=Nur|title=Forest and land-use governance in a decentralized Indonesia|date=2015|doi=10.17528/cifor/005695|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/9986|hdl-access=free}} The president serves as head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.(2002), The Fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Article 7.

The People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution.{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|title=The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia|publisher=International Labour Organization|access-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113409/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|archive-date=11 October 2017}} It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.{{cite journal|last1=Sinukaban|first1=Alexander J.|title=The Existence of Regional Representative Boards in the Indonesian Representative Institution System|journal=Journal of Law Science|date=30 January 2020|volume=2|number=1|pages=15–23|doi=10.35335/jls.v2i1.1607|doi-access=free}} Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality. The DPD represents the interests of the diverse regions of Indonesia.Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution.

Indonesia’s judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews.{{citation|last1=Hamzah|first1=Hanim|last2=Narang|first2=Agnesya M.|last3=Yusari|first3=Anggi|title=Legal systems in Indonesia: overview|publisher=EliScholar|work=YPFS Resource Library|number=11551|date=2021}} The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters, while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases.{{cite journal|last1=Cammack|first1=Mark E.|last2=Feener|first2=R. Michael|title=The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia|publisher=University of Washington School of Law|journal=Washington International Law Journal|date=1 January 2012|volume=21|issue=1|pages=327–330|url=https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wilj/vol21/iss1/5/|access-date=30 January 2025}} Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.{{cite journal|last=Adolf|first=Huala|display-authors=etal|title=Strengthening the Position and Function of the Judicial Commission in the Constitutional System of the Republic of Indonesia|publisher=Institute for Research and European Studies|journal=Journal of Liberty and International Affairs|date=2018|volume=4|number=3|issn=1857-9760}}

{{Main|List of political parties in Indonesia|Elections in Indonesia}}

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|image1 = Prabowo Subianto 2024 official portrait.jpg

|caption1 = Prabowo Subianto,
8th president of Indonesia

|image2 = Gibran Rakabuming 2024 official portrait.jpg

|caption2 = Gibran Rakabuming Raka,
14th vice president of Indonesia}}

Since 1999, Indonesia has operated under a multi-party system, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in the legislative elections. Political parties are generally classified into two categories: secular and nationalist parties, which include the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), the Party of the Functional Groups (Golkar), and the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra Party); and Islamic parties, such as the centrist National Awakening Party (PKB) and the Islamist Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate,{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/09/15/these-unholy-alliances-undermine-indonesian-democracy.html|title=These unholy alliances undermine Indonesian democracy|publisher=The Jakarta Post|author=Bayuni, Endy|date=15 September 2023|access-date=23 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250123031253/https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/09/15/these-unholy-alliances-undermine-indonesian-democracy.html|archive-date=23 January 2025}} and by what are called cartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters.{{Cite journal|last=Slater|first=Dan|date=2018|title=Party Cartelization, Indonesian-Style: Presidential Powersharing and the Contingency of Democratic Opposition|journal=Journal of East Asian Studies|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=23–46|doi=10.1017/jea.2017.26|issn=1598-2408|doi-access=free}} Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia.

In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). The most recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.{{cite journal|last=Simatupang|first=Karmel Hebron|title=Multi–party Systems and Parliamentary Thresholds: The Case of Indonesia's Presidential System with Comparisons to Germany and Taiwan|journal=Journal of Political Issues|date=January 2025|volume=6|number=2|pages=99–109|doi=10.33019/jpi.v6i2.291|doi-access=free}} At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.{{cite journal|last=Wahdini|first=Muhammad|title=The Effectiveness of Simultaneous Election 2019|journal=Journal of Home Affairs Governance|date=29 April 2022|volume=14|number=1|pages=123–134|doi=10.21787/jbp.14.2022.123-134|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Subdivisions of Indonesia}}

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945{{cite journal|last1=Riadi|first1=Bambang|last2=Patmasari|first2=Tri|title=The Progress of Indonesia's Administrative Boundaries Mapping after 72 years of Independence|journal=International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science|date=November 2018|volume=5|issue=11|pages=153–162|doi=10.22161/ijaers.5.11.22|doi-access=free}} to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022.{{cite web|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/264759/southwest-papua-officially-becomes-indonesias-38th-province|title=Southwest Papua officially becomes Indonesia's 38th province|agency=Antara|first=Fardah|last=Assegaf|date=9 December 2022|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=20 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120044109/https://en.antaranews.com/news/264759/southwest-papua-officially-becomes-indonesias-38th-province|url-status=live}} The second level includes regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this are districts (kecamatan, called distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java.{{cite book|last=Setiawan|first=Irfan|title=Rekonstruksi Birokrasi Pemerintahan Daerah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYgpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|publisher=Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri|year=2014|pages=187–188|access-date=5 January 2021|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309152628/https://books.google.com/books?id=LYgpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|url-status=live}}

The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters.{{cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=Berenschot|last2=Capri|first2=Wigke|last3=Dhian|first3=Devy|title=A quiet revolution? Village head elections and the democratization of rural Indonesia|journal=Critical Asian Studies|publisher=Routledge|date=3 February 2021|volume=53|issue=1|pages=126–146|doi=10.1080/14672715.2021.1871852|hdl=11245.1/8ca40666-5d31-4898-8da0-369f324a68e3|hdl-access=free}} Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services. Nine provinces (Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and the six provinces in Papua) are granted a special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservative Islamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law.{{cite journal|author=Michelle Ann Miller|title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=5|issue=3|year=2004|pages=333–351|doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789|s2cid=143311407}} Yogyakarta uniquely retains its pre-colonial monarchy, with its Sultan and Duke serving as governor and vice governor,{{cite journal|last1=Wiszowaty|first1=Marcin M.|last2=Wahyuni|first2=Indria|title=Monarchy in the Republic – Sultanate of Yogyakarta in the Republic of Indonesia|journal=Constitutional Law Review|publisher=Adam Marszałek Publishing House|date=27 December 2023|volume=76|number=6|pages=321–336|doi=10.15804/ppk.2023.06.23}} while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance, aiming to integrate the region more equally with the rest of Indonesia.{{cite journal|last1=Emilianus|first1=J. E.|last2=Lumbuun|first2=T Gayus|last3=Latif|first3=Abdul|last4=Sinaga|first4=Parbuntian|title=Protection of local wisdom of papua's original people by the papua people's assembly in Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Judicial Law|publisher=All Law Journal|date=2024|volume=3|issue=4|pages=10–15|doi=10.54660/IJJL.2024.3.4.10-15}}

{{transcluded section|source=Template:Indonesia provinces labelled map}}

{{center|{{Indonesia provinces labelled map}}}}

{{Main|Foreign relations of Indonesia}}

File:ASEAN HQ 1.jpg headquarters, with Jakarta serving as the organisation's diplomatic capital{{Cite web|title=ASEAN Secretariat renamed as ASEAN Headquarters to strengthen regional diplomacy|url=https://gutzy.asia/2023/09/07/asean-secretariat-renamed-as-asean-headquarters-to-strengthen-regional-diplomacy|access-date=10 September 2023|publisher=Gutzy Asia|date=7 September 2023|archive-date=20 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120105306/https://gutzy.asia/2023/09/07/asean-secretariat-renamed-as-asean-headquarters-to-strengthen-regional-diplomacy/|url-status=live}}]]

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta.{{cite journal|last1=Laksamana|first1=Evan|last2=Alexandra|first2=Lina|title=Hatta and Indonesia's Independent and Active Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect|publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia|date=August 2023|volume=45|issue=2|pages=327–330|doi=10.1355/cs45-2k|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27241198|jstor=27241198|access-date=23 January 2025|url-access=subscription}} This policy aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers.{{cite book|author=Vibhanshu Shekhar|date=26 October 2022|title=Indonesia's Great-Power Management in the Indo-Pacific, The Balancing Behavior of a "Dove State"|url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/indonesias-great-power-management-in-the-indo-pacific-the-balancing-behavior-of-a-dove-state/|publisher=The National Burreau of Asian Research|page=53|volume=17|number=4}} The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions,Chapter III - The Executive Power, Articles 4, 11 and 13 of the Amended 1945 Constitution while the Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a middle power in global politics.{{cite journal|last1=Nandyatama|first1=Randy W.|last2=Ardhani|first2=Irfan|last3=Alvian|first3=Rizky Alif|title=Middle power legitimation strategies: the case of Indonesia and the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific|journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs|publisher=Routledge|date=2 July 2023|volume=77|issue=4|pages=359–379 |doi=10.1080/10357718.2023.2228709}}

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.{{cite journal|title=Indonesia and the ASEAN outlook on the Indo-Pacific|journal=International Affairs|publisher=Oxford Academic|author=Dewi Fortuna Anwar|volume=96|issue=1|date=1 January 2020|pages=111–129|doi=10.1093/ia/iiz223}} Indonesia has actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties.{{cite magazine|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/|title=The Quiet Growth in Indonesia-Israel Relations|author=Muhammad Zulfikar Rakhmat|magazine=The Diplomat|date=11 March 2015|access-date=8 September 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160310165849/http://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/|archive-date=10 March 2016}} Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has built deep relations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade,{{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Daniel|title=China's Power Play in Indonesia: Infrastructure Investment and Territorial Incursions|journal=Social Science Research on Southeast Asia|publisher=Open Edition Journals|date=2023|volume=43|issue=41 |pages=223–247|doi=10.4000/moussons.10736|doi-access=free}} while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.{{cite report|last=Ordaniel|first=Jeffrey|title=The United States and Indonesia: Re-converging Security Interests in the Indo-Pacific|work=Issues & Insights|publisher=Pacific Forum|date=September 2021|volume=21|number=2}}

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950{{efn|name=fn2|During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.{{cite journal|title=Withdrawal from the United Nations: the Indonesian Intermezzo|journal=American Journal of International Law|publisher=Cambridge University Press|last=Schwelb|first=Egon|volume=61|issue=3|date=July 1967|pages=661–672|doi=10.2307/2197461}}}} and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit.{{cite book|title=Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order|date=25 February 2015|isbn=978-1-137-39741-6|last1=Roberts|first1=C.|last2=Habir|first2=A.|last3=Sebastian|first3=L.|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1057/9781137397416}} Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s,{{cite journal|last1=Chowdhury|first1=Anis|last2=Sugema|first2=Iman|title=How Significant and Effective has Foreign Aid to Indonesia been?|journal=Centre for International Economic Studies Working Papers|publisher=IDEAS|date=January 2005}} but it recently established its own foreign aid agency in 2019.{{cite book|last1=Ariyanto Azis|first1=Aswin|last2=Rizky Satriawangsa|first2=Baiq Namira|chapter=From Recipient to Donor: Indonesia's Motives in Giving Foreign Aid to South Pacific 2015-2023 |series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |title=Proceedings of the World Conference on Governance and Social Sciences (WCGSS 2023)|publisher=Atlantis Press|date=29 April 2024|volume=843 |pages=49–63 |doi=10.2991/978-2-38476-236-1_7|isbn=978-2-38476-235-4 }} The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mali.{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/3-country-and-mission.pdf|title=Summary of Contributions to UN Peacekeeping by Country, Mission and Post|publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping|date=31 August 2019|access-date=23 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926183651/https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/3-country-and-mission.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2024}}

{{Main|Indonesian National Armed Forces|Military history of Indonesia}}

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|footer = Indonesian Armed Forces. Clockwise from top: Indonesian Army during training session; Sukhoi Su-30; Pindad Anoa; and Indonesian naval vessel {{ship|KRI|Sultan Iskandar Muda|367}}}}

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.{{cite book|url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2023|title=The Military Balance 2023|author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies|date=15 February 2023|publisher=Routledge|location=London|page=254|isbn=978-1-032-50895-5}} Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.{{cite web|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23|title=Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia-TNI)|last=Lowry|first=Bob|publisher=Parliament of Australia|date=29 June 1999|access-date=29 July 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120115414/https://web.archive.org/web/20171008153611/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23|archive-date=20 January 2025}} Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from its peak during the New Order.{{cite book|last1=Djiwandono|first1=J. Soedjati|title=Civil-Military Relations in Indonesia: The Case of ABRI's Dual Function|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|pages=45–58|edition=1|isbn=9780429501579|doi=10.4324/9780429501579-4}} Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP,{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?end=2023&locations=ID&start=2007&view=chart|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) - Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 May 2025}} with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.{{cite journal|last1=Kosandi|first1=Meidi|last2=Angela|first2=Deni|title=Military Business in Indonesia: Army Cooperative after Acquisition Policy 2009 and Its Impact on Civil-military Relations|journal=International Journal of Social Science and Economic Research|date=October 2019|volume=4|issue=10|issn=2455-8834}}

Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua.{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=270–273, 477–480}}{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Haseman|first2=John|title=The Military and Democracy in Indonesia: Challenges, Politics, and Power|chapter=Separatist Movements in Aceh and Papua|publisher=RAND Corporation|year=2002|edition=1st|pages=99–110|isbn=978-0-8330-3402-1}} While the former ended peacefully in 2005, the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy{{cite journal|last1=Rusdianto|first1=Abu|display-authors=etal|title=Implementation of Special Autonomy Policy in Papua Province|journal=International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies|date=June 2023|volume=39|number=1|pages=457–464|doi=10.52155/ijpsat.v39.1.5404|doi-access=free}} and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.{{cite journal|last=Baird|first=Natalie|title=The Universal Periodic Review and West Papua: Beyond Invisibility?|journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|publisher=Brill|date=1 April 2024|volume=32|issue=1|pages=24–60|doi=10.1163/15718115-bja10158}} Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. Decolonization in East Timor. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. {{OCLC|4458152}}.{{cite book|last1=Budiardjo|first1=Carmel|first2=Liem Soei|last2=Liong|title=The War against East Timor|location=London|publisher=Zed Books|year=1984|page=22|isbn=0-86232-228-6}}

{{Main|Indonesian National Police|Human rights in Indonesia}}

File:Jakarta riot 14 May 1998.jpg

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), supported by other agencies under the President, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order.

Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans,{{cite journal|last=Tanasaldy|first=Taufiq|title=From Official to Grassroots Racism: Transformation of Anti-Chinese Sentiment in Indonesia|journal=The Political Quarterly|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=12 July 2022|volume=93|issue=2|pages=460–468|doi=10.1111/1467-923X.13148}}{{cite journal|last1=Kusumaryati|first1=Veronika|title=#Papuanlivesmatter: black consciousness and political movements in West Papua|journal=Critical Asian Studies|date=19 August 2021|volume=53|issue=4|publisher=Routledge|pages=453–475|doi=10.1080/14672715.2021.1963794}} which have at times escalated into violence, notably the anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s{{cite journal|last1=Rodríguez|first1=Diego García|last2=Murtagh|first2=Ben|title=Situating anti-LGBT moral panics in Indonesia: Homophobia, criminalisation, acceptance, and religiosity|journal=Indonesia and the Malay World|publisher=Routledge|date=9 March 2022|volume=50|number=146|pages=1–9|doi=10.1080/13639811.2022.2038871|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/36786/1/Introduction%2030.01.2022%20bm%20and%20dgr%20edit.pdf}} after relative obscurity on the topic in the decades prior.{{cite journal|last=Tumanan|first=Perdian|title=The History of LGBTQ Discourses in Indonesia|journal=InterViews|date=2020|volume=7|number=1|pages=73–80|doi=10.36061/IV.7.1.20.73.80|doi-broken-date=13 March 2025 |url=http://repository.petra.ac.id/18851/2/Publikasi4_15019_6485.pdf}} Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.

Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.Chapter XA, Article 28E, 3rd Clause of the Amended 1945 Constitution. Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online.{{cite journal|last=Afisa|first=Afisa|display-authors=etal|title=Analysis of the ITE Law on Digital Rights and Democratic Values in Indonesia|journal=The Journal of Society and Media|volume=8|number=2|date=29 October 2024|pages=424–444|doi=10.26740/jsm.v8n2.p424-444}} Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/indonesia/report-indonesia/|title=Indonesia 2023|publisher=Amnesty International|date=2023|access-date=27 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240516131538/https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/indonesia/report-indonesia/|archive-date=16 May 2024}} The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.{{cite journal|title=Criminalization of Freedom of Assembly in Indonesia|journal=Islamic Politics, Law, and Governance|publisher=Islamic Research|author=Mispansyah|author2=Nurunnisa|author3=Tiya Erniyati|volume=6|issue=2|date=17 June 2023|pages=93–103|doi=10.47076/jkpis.v6i2.192|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Economy of Indonesia|Agriculture in Indonesia|Poverty in Indonesia}}

File:Perkebunan kelapa sawit milik rakyat (1).JPG plantation in Kampar Regency, Riau. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil{{cite journal|last1=Pacheco|first1=P.|last2=Gnych|first2=S.|last3=Dermawan|first3=A.|last4=Komarudin|first4=H.|last5=Okarda|first5=B.|date=2017|title=The Palm Oil Global Value Chain: Implications for Economic Growth and Social and Environmental Sustainability|journal=Center for International Forestry Research – Working Paper|volume=220}}]]

File:Morowali Industrial Park.jpg hosting primarily nickel-related industries in Morowali Regency, Central Sulawesi. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of nickel{{cite news|title=How Indonesia Became the Biggest Player in the Nickel Market|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-06-13/how-indonesia-became-the-biggest-player-in-the-nickel-market|work=Bloomberg|date=13 June 2024|access-date=30 August 2024|archive-date=13 June 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240613175519/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-06-13/how-indonesia-became-the-biggest-player-in-the-nickel-market|url-status=live}}]]

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles.{{cite web|url=https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|title=Economy of Indonesia|publisher=Indonesia Investments|access-date=4 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130719093320/http://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|archive-date=19 July 2013}} As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,{{cite web|url=https://g20.org/about-g20/g20-members/|title=G20 Members|publisher=G20|access-date=20 January 2025}} it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP was {{currency|1.402 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}, ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was {{currency|4.658 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}, ranking 7th. Per capita GDP in PPP is {{currency|16,542|USD|passthrough=no}}, while nominal per capita GDP is {{currency|4,980|USD|passthrough=no}}. In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%).{{cite web|url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/indonesia/economy/|title=Indonesia: Economy|publisher=Global Edge|date=2022|access-date=23 March 2025|archive-date=22 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250122054227/https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/indonesia/economy|url-status=live}}

The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s.{{cite web|url=http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|title=The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy|last1=Elias|first1=Stephen|last2=Noone|first2=Clare|publisher=Reserve Bank of Australia|date=December 2011|access-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203419/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2016}} Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%.{{cite journal|last1=Nugroho|first1=Anda|last2=Amir|first2=Hidayat|last3=Maududy|first3=Irsyan|last4=Marlina|first4=Irma|title=Poverty eradication programs in Indonesia: Progress, challenges and reforms|journal=Journal of Policy and Modeling|publisher=Elsevier Ltd|date=7 December 2021|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1204–1224|doi=10.1016/j.jpolmod.2021.05.002}} However, the economy took a severe hit during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78%, and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999.{{cite journal|last1=Titiheruw|first1=Ira S.|last2=Atje|first2=Raymond|date=2008|title=Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia|journal=Asian Development Bank Institute Discussion Paper|volume=94|pages=9–10}} Recovery began in the early 2000s, with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates,{{cite web|last=Temple|first=Jonathan|date=15 August 2001|title=Growing into trouble: Indonesia after 1966|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202512/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2016|access-date=27 December 2016|publisher=University of Bristol}} resulting in growth rates between 4% and 6% since 2004.{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=11&sy=2007&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH&grp=0&a=|title=World Economic Outlook Database: Report for Selected Countries and Subjects – Indonesia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=October 2024|access-date=21 January 2025|archive-date=21 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121005028/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=536,&s=NGDP_RPCH,&sy=2004&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|url-status=live}} These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis.{{cite journal|last1=Chatib Basri|first1=Muhammad|last2=Rahardja|first2=Sjamsu|title=The Indonesian Economy amidst the Global Crisis: Good Policy and Good Luck|journal=ASEAN Economic Bulletin|publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|date=April 2010|volume=27|issue=1|pages=77–97|doi=10.1355/ae27-le|doi-broken-date=13 February 2025}} The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within just a year.{{cite book|title=Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2022: Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery|publisher=WorldBank|date=31 May 2022|hdl=10986/37584}}

Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio. It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand.{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn|title=Indonesia|publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|date=2023|access-date=8 May 2025}} Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is a major agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco.{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/topics/7732/agriculture-industry-in-indonesia//|title=Agriculture in Indonesia - statistics & facts|publisher=Statista|author=Siahaan, Mona|date=26 August 2024|access-date=6 February 2025}} Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.{{cite journal|last1=Tjahja Nugraha|first1=Achmad|last2=Prayitno|first2=Gunawan|title=Regional Disparity in Western and Eastern Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Economics and Business Administration|date=2020|volume=8|issue=4|pages=101–110|doi=10.35808/ijeba/572|doi-access=free}}{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|title=Indonesia's Rising Divide|publisher=World Bank|date=7 December 2015|access-date=14 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120122048/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|archive-date=20 January 2025}}

{{Main|Tourism in Indonesia}}File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia{{cite book|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.|date=2003|location=Melbourne|pages=211–215|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6|last=Elliott|first=Mark}}]]

Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributing {{currency|14 billion|USD|passthrough=yes}} to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023.{{cite journal|last1=Dávid|first1=Lóránt Dénes|last2=Rahmat|first2=Al Fauzi|last3=Priatmoko|first3=Setiawan|title=Main trends in the tourism industry in Indonesia between 2020–2023|publisher=EnPress Publisher, LLC|journal=Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development|date=9 October 2024|volume=8|issue=11|page=8162|doi=10.24294/jipd.v8i11.8162|doi-access=free}} Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/MTgyMSMy/number-of-foreign-tourist-visits-to-indonesia-by-nationality.html|title=Number of Foreign Tourist Visits to Indonesia by Nationality (Visit), 2024|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|access-date=8 May 2025}}

The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching {{convert|54716|km|0}}. Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, the Toraja highlands, and the traditional festivities of Bali.{{cite book|title=Informasi Pariwisata Nusantara|language=id|publisher=Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia|year=2014|location=Jakarta|type=Not for sale}}

Indonesia is home to ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Komodo National Park and the Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 18 other sites are on the tentative list, such as Bunaken National Park and the Raja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in Jakarta and Semarang, as well as the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud.

{{Main|Science and technology in Indonesia}}

File:STS-41-B Palapa B-2 deployment.jpg satellite launch in 1984|alt=]]

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=ID|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) - Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=30 January 2025}} Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status.{{Cite book|year=2024|title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/|access-date=6 October 2024|page=18|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|doi=10.34667/tind.50062|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|last1=Dutta|first1=Soumitra|last2=Lanvin|first2=Bruno|last3=Rivera León|first3=Lorena|last4=Wunsch-Vincent|first4=Sacha}} Historical innovations include terasering, the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people.{{cite journal|last=Yunus Ali|first=Muhammad|display-authors=etal|title=The Process of Making a Pinisi Boat in Bantobahari District, Bulukumba Regency, Indonesia|publisher=European Open Science|journal=European Journal of Engineering and Technology Research|date=October 2022|volume=7|issue=5|pages=70–75|doi=10.24018/ejeng.2022.7.5.2837|doi-access=free}} In the 1980s, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed the Sosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally.{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html|title=Man of 1000 shoulders|last=Sertori|first=Trisha|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=11 December 2014|access-date=20 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120123925/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html|archive-date=20 January 2025}} Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.{{cite journal|last1=Prinanda|first1=Devita|last2=Prasodjo|first2=Haryo|title=Indonesia's Trade Policy Strategy through the Rail Industry for The Train Market in Africa|journal=Periodical Review of Economics and Development Studies|publisher=Media Trend|language=id|date=March 2023|volume=18|issue=1|pages=102–109|doi=10.21107/mediatrend.v18i1.17337}}

Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus{{cite journal|last1=Pandapotan|first1=B.Y.|last2=Arief|first2=D.S.|last3=Fridawaty|first3=S.|last4=Firdaus|first4=M.|title=Production Process of D-Nose Panel Components for A-350 Airplane Wings, PT Dirgantara Indonesia|journal=Journal of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace|publisher=ISOMAse|date=30 March 2023|volume=67|number=1|pages=15–22|doi=10.36842/jomase.v67i1.276 |issn=2527-6085}} and co-developed the CN-235 with Spain's CASA.{{cite journal|last1=Steenhuis|first1=Harm-Jan|last2=de Bruin|first2=Erik J.|last3=Heerkens|first3=Hans|title=Technology transfer and catch-up; Lessons from the commercial aircraft industry|publisher=Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.|journal=International Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialisation|date=2007|volume=3|number=2,3,4|page=250|doi=10.1504/IJTTC.2007.017809}} Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research.{{cite journal|last=Amir|first=Sulfikar|title=Nationalist rhetoric and technological development: The Indonesian aircraft industry in the New Order regime|journal=Technology in Society|date=August 2007|volume=29|issue=3|pages=261–368|doi=10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.04.010}} Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.{{cite book|last1=Laksamana|first1=Evan A.|last2=Mantong|first2=Andrew W.|chapter=Missing Pillars of Strategic Autonomy? Security Cooperation Between Korea and ASEAN|publisher=Korea Institute for International Economic Policy|date=30 December 2021|title=The New Southern Policy Plus: Progress and Way Forward|isbn=978-89-322-0148-1}}

Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite (Palapa) in 1976 with assistance from the United States,{{cite journal|last=Ibrahim|first=Marwah|url=https://ohioopen.library.ohio.edu/spacejournal/vol4/iss8/2/|title=Planning and Development of Indonesia's Domestic Communications Satellite System PALAPA|publisher=OHIO Open Library|journal=Online Journal of Space Communication|date=July 2021|volume=4|issue=8|access-date=11 February 2025}} making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes.{{cite web|url=https://www.n2yo.com/satellites/?c=INDO&t=country|title=Satellites by countries and organizations: Indonesia|publisher=N2YO|access-date=7 May 2024}} Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.{{cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/spacexs-unit-starlink-secures-indonesia-122755897.html|title=SpaceX's unit Starlink secures Indonesia operating permit|author=Teresia, Ananda|publisher=Yahoo News|date=8 May 2024|access-date=9 May 2024|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250120130324/https://www.yahoo.com/news/spacexs-unit-starlink-secures-indonesia-122755897.html?guccounter=1|archive-date=20 January 2025}}

{{See also|List of main infrastructure projects in Indonesia}}

{{Main|Transport in Indonesia}}

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|image1 = 21 Bus Khusus Penumpang Kapal Milik Perum DAMRI trayek Tanjung Perak - Purabaya terparkir di depan Terminal Penumpang Gapura Surya Nusantara Pelabuhan Tanjung Perak (cropped).jpg

|image2 = KA Argo Parahyangan (cropped).jpg

|image3 = Pelni Einschiffung.jpg

|image4 = PK-GIE Garuda Indonesia Boeing 777-3U3(ER) cn29147, Take off from Schiphol (AMS - EHAM), The Netherlands.JPG

|footer = Transport modes in Indonesia. Clockwise from top: DAMRI bus; KAI train; Garuda Indonesia airliner; and Pelni ship}}

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution, which is heavily concentrated on Java.{{cite journal|last1=Legge|first1=John D.|title=Review: Indonesia's Diversity Revisited|journal=Indonesia|date=April 1990|volume=49|issue=49|pages=127–131|doi=10.2307/3351057|jstor=3351057|hdl=1813/53928|hdl-access=free}} As of 2022, the predominant road network spanned {{convert|548097|km|mi|abbr=off}},{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/2/NTEjMg==/panjang-jalan-menurut-jenis-permukaan.html|title=Length of Road by Surface, 2002–2022 (Km)|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|language=id|access-date=21 January 2025}} including Transjakarta, which operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system.{{cite journal|last1=Kreindler|first1=Gabriel|display-authors=etal|title=Optimal Public Transportation Networks: Evidence from the World's Largest Bus Rapid Transit System in Jakarta|journal=Working Paper|date=June 2023|number=31369|publisher=National Burreau of Economic Research|doi=10.3386/w31369}} Common urban transport includes rickshaws like bajaj and becak and shared taxis such as angkot and minibuses.{{cite report|title=Sustainability Assessment of Urban Transport System in Greater Jakarta|date=2021|author=Resdiansyah|work=Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|publisher=United Nations|hdl=20.500.12870/4280}}{{citation|last1=Kuntadi|first1=Cris|last2=Lestari|first2=Humannisa R.|last3=Nurlaela|first3=Siti|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389683055|title=The Public Preferences of Public Transportation in Indonesia|publisher=International CEO Communication, Economics, Organization & Social Sciences Congress|date=December 2022}}

File:Whoosh High-speed Train G1224, in Bojongkoneng, Ngamprah.jpg]]

Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi,{{cite news|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/vision/sulawesis-first-trains-begin-transporting-passengers-in-trial|title=Sulawesi's First Trains Begin Transporting Passengers in Trial|first=Ifan|last=Ahmad|work=Jakarta Globe|date=29 October 2022|access-date=23 October 2023|archive-date=21 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121012124/https://jakartaglobe.id/vision/sulawesis-first-trains-begin-transporting-passengers-in-trial|url-status=live}} serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang, with more planned for other cities.{{cite web|url=https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta|title=At Last, Light Rail Comes to Jakarta|last=Coca|first=Nithin|publisher=Overture|date=14 April 2019|access-date=22 November 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121011733/https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta|archive-date=21 January 2025}} In collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its first high-speed rail (Whoosh) in 2023, connecting Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.{{cite journal|last1=Mochammad Noor|first1=Emyr|last2=Yiming|first2=Song|title=China's Economic Diplomacy Towards Indonesia's Development: A Case Study of Jakarta-Bandung High Speed Railway|journal=Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities|publisher=National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN)|date=30 June 2024|volume=14|issue=1|pages=15–29|issn=2656-7512}}

Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed by Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam.{{cite web|title=Garuda Indonesia Becomes 20th Member of SkyTeam Alliance|url=http://www.skyteam.com/en/About-us/Press/News/2014/Garuda-Indonesia-Becomes-20th-Member-of-SkyTeam-Alliance/|date=5 March 2014|publisher=SkyTeam|access-date=6 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305104028/https://www.skyteam.com/en/About-us/Press/News/2014/Garuda-Indonesia-Becomes-20th-Member-of-SkyTeam-Alliance/|archive-date=5 March 2014}} The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced,{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21693404-after-decades-underinvestment-infrastructure-spending-picking-up-last|title=The 13,466-island problem|newspaper=The Economist|date=27 February 2016|access-date=16 June 2017|archive-date=12 March 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230312082938/https://www.economist.com/special-report/2016/02/25/the-13466-island-problem|url-status=live}} handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.{{cite journal|last1=Suprata|first1=F|last2=Sugioko|first2=A|last3=Natalia|first3=C|title=Analysing the cause of idle time in loading and unloading operation at Indonesian international port container terminal: Port of Tanjung Priok case study|journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering|date=2020|volume=847|issue=1|page=012090|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|doi=10.1088/1757-899X/847/1/012090|bibcode=2020MS&E..847a2090S|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Energy in Indonesia}}

File:PLTB-Sidrap.jpg, South Sulawesi]]

Indonesia is a major energy producer and consumer, producing {{convert|18.8|e15Btu|TWh|lk=on|order=flip|abbr=off}} and consuming {{convert|10.514|e15Btu|TWh|order=flip|abbr=off}} worth of energy in 2023.{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/country.php?iso=IDN|title=Overview: Indonesia|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|date=24 September 2021|access-date=25 January 2025}} The country's total installed power generation capacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW),{{cite report|url=https://www.pwc.com/id/en/pwc-publications/industries-publications/energy--utilities---mining-publications/power-guide-2023.htm|year=2023|title=Power in Indonesia: Investment and Taxation Guide 2023|publisher=PwC|edition=7}} primarily from coal (61%). Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar. The state-owned State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country.{{cite journal|last1=Apriliyanti|first1=Indri Dwi|last2=Nugraha|first2=Diwangkara Bagus|last3=Kristiansen|first3=Stein|last4=Overland|first4=Indri|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|date=December 2024|title=To reform or not reform? Competing energy transition perspectives on Indonesia's monopoly electricity supplier Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN)|volume=118|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2024.103797|doi-access=free}}

Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil. Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share.{{cite web|url=https://www.iea.org/countries/indonesia/energy-mix|title=Indonesia - Energy Supply|publisher=International Energy Agency|date=2022|access-date=24 January 2025}} The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.{{cite report|title=Summary of Indonesia's Energy Sector Assessment|url=https://www.adb.org/publications/summary-indonesias-energy-sector-assessment|date=December 2015|work=ADB Papers on Indonesia|publisher=Asian Development Bank}} The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal{{cite journal|last1=Ambya|first1=Ambya|last2=Hamzah|first2=Lies Maria|title=Indonesian Coal Exports: Dynamic Panel Analysis Approach|journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy|publisher=Econ Journals|date=15 December 2021|volume=12|issue=1|pages=390–395|doi=10.32479/ijeep.11978|doi-access=free}} and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).{{cite report|last1=Choi|first1=Jeanne|last2=Herberg|first2=Mikkal E.|last3=Palti-Guzman|first3=Leslie|last4=Smith|first4=Riley|last5=Tsafos|first5=Nikos|title=Revolutionizing LNG and Natural Gas in the Indo-Pacific|work=NBR Special Report|publisher=The National Burreau of Asian Research|date=October 2019|number=81|pages=26–29}}

The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.{{cite journal|last=Siregar|first=Yudha Irmansyah|title=Pathways towards net-zero emissions in Indonesia's energy sector|journal=Energy|publisher=Elsevier Ltd|date=27 August 2024|volume=308|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2024.133014|doi-access=free}} In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables.{{cite web|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/business/indonesia-to-add-71-gw-of-renewable-energy-as-part-of-longterm-power-plan|title=Indonesia to Add 71 GW of Renewable Energy as Part of Long-Term Power Plan|work=Jakarta Globe|publisher=The Jakarta Globe|date=24 December 2024|access-date=25 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250125151407/https://jakartaglobe.id/business/indonesia-to-add-71-gw-of-renewable-energy-as-part-of-longterm-power-plan|archive-date=25 January 2025}} However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas,{{cite journal|last1=Wirawan|first1=Hanni|last2=Gultom|first2=Yohanna M. L.|journal=Energy for Sustainable Development|date=June 2021|title=The effects of renewable energy-based village grid electrification on poverty reduction in remote areas: The case of Indonesia|volume=62|pages=186–194|doi=10.1016/j.esd.2021.04.006|bibcode=2021ESusD..62..186W}} and continues to rely heavily on coal.{{cite journal|last1=Gielen|first1=Dolf|last2=Saygin|first2=Deger|last3=Rigter|first3=Jasper|date=March 2017|title=Renewable Energy Prospects: Indonesia, a REmap analysis|journal=International Renewable Energy Agency|isbn=978-92-95111-19-6}}

{{Main|Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesians}}

{{See also|List of Indonesian cities by population|List of metropolitan areas in Indonesia}}

File:Population density of Indonesia by district (kecamatan) (2022) (alternate colour scheme).svg

According to the 2020 census, Indonesia had a population of 270.2 million, making it the world's fourth most populous country. The population grew at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020. Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of Indonesia's population.{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|page=9|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020|language=id|date=21 January 2021|access-date=21 January 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122154418/https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2021}} The overall population density stands at {{convert|141|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|people |people|}}, but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching {{convert|1,171|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|people |people|}}.{{cite journal|last=Mardiansjah|first=Fadjar H.|display-authors=etal|title=Analyzing Urban Population Growth in the Towns of Non-urban Regions in Java, Indonesia, Using Spatial Analysis|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|year=2023|volume=1264|issue=1|page=012012|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/012012|doi-access=free|bibcode=2023E&ES.1264a2012M}} Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,{{cite journal|last=Nitisastro|first=Widjojo|title=Population Trends in Indonesia|publisher=Cornell University Press|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|year=1970|pages=187|doi=10.1017/S0021911800147916|doi-broken-date=13 February 2025}} and projections estimate it will grow to 321 million by 2050.{{cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf|title=World Population Prospect: 2017 Revision|publisher=United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs – Population Division|date=21 June 2017|access-date=20 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220083223/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2017}} The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.

Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and varying levels of development. It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and uncontacted tribes in Papua.{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|title=BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?|publisher=Survival International|date=25 January 2007|access-date=30 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120919100750/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|archive-date=19 September 2012}} As of 2023, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas,{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-urban|title=Share of people living in urban areas, 2023|publisher=Our World in Data|access-date=21 January 2025}} with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, housing over 34 million people.{{cite web|title=Demographia World Urban Areas, 15th Annual Edition|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|publisher=Demographia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207210003/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-date=7 February 2020|date=April 2019}} Additionally, about 8 million Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.{{cite book|last=Setijadi|first=Charlotte|title=Harnessing the Potential of the Indonesian Diaspora|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|date=December 2017|number=18|doi=10.1355/9789814786928|isbn=9789814786928|url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/2888}}

{{Largest cities of Indonesia|class=info}}

{{Main|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Native Indonesians|Languages of Indonesia}}

File:Indonesia Ethnic Groups Map English.svg

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|title=Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians|language=id|last1=Na'im|first1=Akhsan|last2=Syaputra|first2=Hendry|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|date=2010|access-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194534/http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015}} predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}}{{sfn|Witton|2003|pp=139, 181, 251, 435}}{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1=B.|last2=Gillow|first2=J.|title=The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia|publisher=Thames and Hudson Ltd.|year=1994|location=London|page=7|isbn=978-0-500-34132-2}}{{cite book|url=https://gln.kemdikbud.go.id/glnsite/diaspora-melanesia-di-nusantara/|title=Diaspora Melanesia di Nusantara|access-date=24 August 2022|language=id|author1=Truman Simanjuntak|author2=Herawati Sudoyo|author3=Multamia R.M.T. Lauder|author4=Allan Lauder|author5=Ninuk Kleden Probonegoro|author6=Rovicky Dwi Putrohari|author7=Desy Pola Usmany|author8=Yudha P.N. Yapsenang|author9=Edward L. Poelinggomang|author10=Gregorius Neonbasu|publisher=Direktorat Sejarah, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|isbn=978-602-1289-19-8|year=2015|archive-date=21 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121021240/https://web.archive.org/web/20221225085402/https://gln.kemdikbud.go.id/glnsite/diaspora-melanesia-di-nusantara/}} The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,{{cite book|last1=Ananta|first1=Aris|last2=Arifin|first2=Evi Nurvidya|last3=Hasbullah|first3=M Sairi|last4=Handayani|first4=Nur Budi|last5=Pramono|first5=Agus|year=2015|title=Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crKfCgAAQBAJ|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4519-87-8}} are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,{{cite book|last=Kingsbury|first=Damien|title=Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia|publisher=Routledge|page=131|isbn=0-415-29737-0|year=2003}} primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.{{efn|Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans, and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.}} A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=256}}

The official language, Indonesian, is a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect, which became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries.{{efn|Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, and English.{{cite web|url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|last=Sneddon|first=James N.|publisher=University of South Wales Press Ltd.|date=April 2013|access-date=20 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121015629/https://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|archive-date=21 January 2025}}{{cite journal|last=Anwar|first=Khaidir|title=Minangkabau, Background of the main pioneers of modern standard Malay in Indonesia|journal=Archipel|year=1976|volume=12|pages=77–93|doi=10.3406/arch.1976.1296}}{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|title=Language interference: Indonesian and English|last=Amerl|first=Ivana|publisher=MED Magazine|date=May 2006|access-date=20 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121015752/https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050607/http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|archive-date=21 January 2025}}}} It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.{{cite journal|last=Ridwan|first=Muhammad|title=National and Official Language: The Long Journey of Indonesian Language|journal=Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences|date=June 2018|volume=1|number=2|pages=72–78|doi=10.33258/birci.v1i2.14}} While nearly all Indonesians speak Bahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language.{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition|last1=Simons|first1=Gary F.|last2=Fennig|first2=Charles D.|work=Ethnologue|publisher=SIL International|access-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626224541/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|archive-date=26 June 2019}} These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese is the most widely spoken local language and holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.{{cite act|type=Regional Regulation|index=2|date=2021|legislature=Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta|title=Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa|url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021|language=id}}

The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.{{cite journal|last1=van Imhoff|first1=Evert|last2=Beets|first2=Gijs|title=A demographic history of the Indo-Dutch population, 1930–2001|publisher=Springer|journal=Journal of Population Research|date=March 2004|volume=21|issue=2|pages=47–72|doi=10.1007/BF03032210}} The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.{{sfn|Baker|Prys Jones|1998|p=202}}{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Kerry|title=Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company|date=2009|pages=322–342|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-88586-7}} Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,{{sfn|Ammon|Dittmar|Mattheier|Trudgill|2006|p=2017}} as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.{{sfn|Booij|1999|p=2}}

{{Main|Religion in Indonesia}}

File:Religious affiliation by district (kecamatan) in Indonesia (2022).svg

Indonesia officially recognises six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism,{{cite book|surname=Shah|given=Dian A. H.|date=25 October 2017|title=Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-18334-6|doi=10.1017/9781316869635}}{{cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Paul|date=2018|title=The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia|journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs|volume=16|issue=1|pages=85–96|doi=10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588|doi-access=free}} while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitutionChapter XA, Article 28E, 1st Clause of the 1945 Constitution. and indigenous religions for administrative purposes.{{cite web|url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2016/12/07/09405241/penjelasan.pemerintah.terkait.pentingnya.kolom.agama.di.kk.dan.ktp|title=Penjelasan Pemerintah Terkait Pentingnya Kolom Agama di KK dan KTP|work=KOMPAS.com|publisher=Kompas|date=7 December 2017|access-date=29 February 2024|language=Indonesian|archive-date=21 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121020419/https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2016/12/07/09405241/penjelasan.pemerintah.terkait.pentingnya.kolom.agama.di.kk.dan.ktp|url-status=live|last1=Media|first1=Kompas Cyber}} As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (248 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=379}} with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/|title=Sunni and Shia Muslims|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=27 January 2011|access-date=6 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140314234439/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/|archive-date=14 March 2014}}{{efn|The rest consists of the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|title=2016 Indonesia International Religious Freedom Report|author=((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor))|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2017|access-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219044652/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|archive-date=19 December 2017}}}} Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces,{{Citation|author=|year=2014|title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2023, Indonesia|publisher=U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/indonesia/|access-date=21 January 2025|archive-date=21 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121020935/https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/indonesia/|url-status=live}} while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.{{cite book|last=Oey|first=Eric|title=Bali|place=Singapore|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1997|edition=3rd|isbn=978-962-593-028-2}}{{cite book|title=Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia|editor=Suryadinata, Leo|year=2008|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-835-1}}

File:Pradaksina.jpg monks performing Pradakshina ritual at Borobudur temple, Central Java]]

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.{{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set)|editor=Ooi, Keat Gin|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2004|page=177|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}} Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15–18 {{ISBN|979-605-406-X}}, {{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2003/23829.htm|title=2003 International Religious Freedom Report|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2003|access-date=13 January 2012|archive-date=21 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121022319/https://web.archive.org/web/20210809081448/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2003/23829.htm|url-status=live}}

File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg in Bali, the only province where Hinduism is the predominant religion]]

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in {{Google books|X7YfAAAAIAAJ|Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|pages=1–54}} followed by Buddhism in the 6th century.{{cite web|title=Buddhism in Indonesia|work=Buddha Dharma Education Association|year=2005|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121220201034/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm|archive-date=20 December 2012|access-date=3 October 2006}} Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority.{{cite journal|last1=Rachman|first1=T.|date=2013|title='Indianization' of Indonesia in an Historical Sketch|journal=International Journal of Nusantara Islam|volume=1|issue=2}}{{cite journal|last=Tandon|first=Pradeep|title=Indianised Indonesia: A Cultural Understanding|journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science|publisher=Indian Political Science Association|date=January–March 2017|volume=78|number=1|pages=151–158|issn=0019-5510}} Islam arrived as early as the 8th century{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 2: M–Z|last=Martin|first=Richard C.|year=2004|publisher=Macmillan}}Gerhard Bowering et al. (2012), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, pp. xvi through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}{{cite web|title=Indonesia – Bhineka Tunggal Ika|publisher=Centre Universitaire d'Informatique|url=http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html|access-date=20 October 2006|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130223214506/http://web.archive.org/web/20060914023845/http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html|archive-date=23 February 2013}} By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, dawah, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.Taufiq Tanasaldy, Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-04-26373-4}}Gerhard Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}

File:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg in Banda Aceh, Aceh. The spread of Islam in Indonesia began in the region]]

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier,{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=25, 26, 28}}{{cite journal|title=Francis Xavier. His Life, His Times|journal=Missiology: An International Review|publisher=Sage Journals|author=Georg Schurhammer, S. J.|volume=8|issue=3|date=1 July 1980|pages=353–357|doi=10.1177/009182968000800307}} though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism,{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=28, 62}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=22}}{{cite book|last=Goh|first=Robbie B.H.|title=Christianity in Southeast Asia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|page=80|isbn=978-981-230-297-7|year=2005}} though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.{{cite web|url=http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php|title=Indonesia – Asia|publisher=Reformed Online|access-date=5 December 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121022932/https://web.archive.org/web/20061205042413/http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php|archive-date=21 January 2025}} A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya.{{cite journal|last1=Lubis|first1=Mukhlis|last2=Irwansyah|first2=Irwansyah|title=Between Assimilation and Identity: The Dynamics of the Jewish Community in Indonesia|journal=Asian Journal of Social and Humanities|date=26 April 2024|volume=2|number=7|pages=1496–1507|doi=10.59888/ajosh.v2i7.289}} One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31 km from Manado.{{cite journal|last=Aryani|first=Sekar Ayu|title=Dialectic of Religion and National Identity in North Sulawesi Jewish Communities in The Perspective of Cross-Cultural and Religious Psychology|journal=Al-Jami'ah: Journal of Islamic Studies|publisher=Al-Jamiah Research Centre|volume=60|issue=1|date=25 June 2022|issn=2338-557X|doi=10.14421/ajis.2022.601.199-226|pages=199–226|doi-access=free}}

File:Patung Tuan ma-Semana Santa.jpg, East Nusa Tenggara, a Catholic ritual during Holy Week]]

Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/|title=How religious commitment varies by country among people of all ages|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=13 June 2018|access-date=23 November 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180701101450/http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/|archive-date=1 July 2018}}{{cite web|url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|title=Religion in Indonesia: An Insight|last=Pearce|first=Jonathan MS|publisher=Patheos|date=28 October 2018|access-date=23 November 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121023917/https://web.archive.org/web/20181028170242/https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|archive-date=21 January 2025}} Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.{{cite journal|title=The Culture of Pancasila: An Indonesian concept that fuses the impossible|journal=Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia|publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences|last=Głąb|first=Katarzyna Marta|pages=5–22|number=33|date=2020|ISSN=0860-6102}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=117}} While it promotes harmony,{{cite book|surname=Madjid|given=Nurcholish|title=Islamic Roots of Modern Pluralism: Indonesian Experience|publisher=Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies|year=1994}} religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.{{cite journal|last=Sumaktoyo|first=Nathanael Gratias|title=A Price for Democracy? Religious Legislation and Religious Discrimination in Post-Soeharto Indonesia|journal=Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies|date=26 March 2020|volume=56|issue=1|pages=23–42|doi=10.1080/00074918.2019.1661354}}

{{Main|Education in Indonesia}}

File:No 18 Rektorat Universitas Indonesia.jpg is one of Indonesia's top universities|alt=]]

Indonesia has one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago.{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/brief/world-bank-and-education-in-indonesia|title=World Bank and Education in Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|date=1 September 2024|access-date=24 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250124023816/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/brief/world-bank-and-education-in-indonesia|archive-date=24 January 2025}} Overseen by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools, the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.{{Cite journal|last1=Mukminin|first1=Amirul|last2=Habibi1|first2=Akhmad|last3=Diat Prajoso|first3=Lantip|last4=Idi|first4=Abdullah|last5=Hamidah1|first5=Afreni|date=21 June 2019|title=Curriculum Reform in Indonesia: Moving from an Exclusive to Inclusive Curriculum|journal=Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal|volume=9|issue=2|pages=53–72|doi=10.26529/cepsj.543}} While the literacy rate is high (96%), it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/MzA0IzI%3D/net-enrollment-ratio---n-e-r--.html|title=Net Enrolment Rate (NER) by Province and Education Level, 2024|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|date=2 December 2024|access-date=24 January 2025}}{{cite report|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia 2024|date=26 November 2024|work=OECD Economic Surveys|series=OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia|publisher=OECD Publishing|doi=10.1787/de87555a-en|isbn=978-92-64-49438-1}}

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=ID|title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) - Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 May 2025}} In the same year, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.{{cite book|last=Moeliodihardjo|first=Bagyo Y.|title=Higher Education Development and Study Abroad Experiences of Faculty in Indonesia|publisher=Springer|date=11 August 2024|page=123|isbn=978-981-97-0775-1}} The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.{{cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/indonesia?country=[ID]&sorting=[rankings_htol|title=List of Universities in Indonesia|publisher=QS World University Rankings|access-date=21 January 2025}}

Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers.{{citation|title=Analysis of the Sociological Perspective of Education: Educational Gaps in Affecting Social Mobility in Indonesia|author=Novianti, Divya Maysa|date=7 June 2024|doi=10.31235/osf.io/eh4y3}} The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.{{cite report|title=OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Indonesia 2020|date=16 December 2020|series=OECD Investment Policy Reviews|publisher=OECD Publishing, Paris|doi=10.1787/b56512da-en|isbn=978-92-64-65526-3}} The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.{{cite report|title=Higher Education for Technology and Innovation Project (RRP INO 5233) - Sector Assessment: Education|url=https://www.adb.org/projects/documents/ino-52332-001-rrp|date=August 2021|work=OECD Economic Surveys|publisher=Asian Development Bank}}{{cite web|url=https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20240124125713987|title=Universities chase 'world class' status but lack funds|publisher=University World News|author=Yamin, Kafil|date=24 January 2024|access-date=24 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250125153338/https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20240124125713987|archive-date=25 January 2025}}

{{Main|Healthcare in Indonesia}}

File:Ciptomangun-hospital.jpg in Jakarta|alt=]]

Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure. In the late 1960s, the government began establishing community health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.{{cite journal|title=The Republic of Indonesia Health System Review|journal=Health System in Transition Reviews|publisher=Asia Pacific Observatory on Health Systems and Policies|author1=Yodi Mahendradhata|author2=Laksono Trisnantoro|editor-last1=Hort|editor-first1=Krishna|editor-last2=Patcharanarumol|editor-first2=Walaiporn|display-authors=etal|volume=7|issue=1|pages=21–23|date=10 March 2017|isbn=9789290225164}} With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.{{citation|title=Ensuring sustainability of polio immunization in health system transition: lessons from the polio eradication initiative in Indonesia|journal=BMC Public Health|author1=Luthfi Azizatunnisa|author2=Utsamani Cintyamena|author3=Yodi Mahendradhata|author4=Riris Andono Ahmad|volume=21|date=6 September 2021|issue=1|page=1624|doi=10.1186/s12889-021-11642-7|doi-access=free|pmid=34488698|pmc=8419659}} The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), a universal health care managed by the Social Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html|title=Birth of Indonesia's 'Medicare': Fasten your seatbelts|last=Thabrany|first=Hasbullah|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2 January 2014|access-date=26 August 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121024551/https://web.archive.org/web/20140110053307/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html|archive-date=21 January 2025}} It is one of the world's largest single-payer systems, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million) in 2021.{{cite journal|title=The benefits and burden of health financing in Indonesia: analyses of nationally representative cross-sectional data|journal=Lancet Global Health|publisher=The Lancet|author1=Augustine Asante|author2=Qinglu Cheng|author3=Dwidjo Susilo|display-authors=etal|volume=11|issue=5|date=May 2023|pages=e770–e780|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00064-5|pmid=37061314|url=https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/id/eprint/4673009/1/Asante%20et%20al%20Lancet%20GH.pdf}}

Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=ID|title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 May 2025}} Primary healthcare is delivered through puskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/paper/2022/01/02/ri-loses-out-as-citizens-spend-billions-on-health-care-abroad.html|title=RI loses out as citizens spend billions on health care abroad|publisher=The Jakarta Post|author=Thomas, Vincent Fabian|date=3 January 2022|access-date=26 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250126052603/https://www.thejakartapost.com/paper/2022/01/02/ri-loses-out-as-citizens-spend-billions-on-health-care-abroad.html|archive-date=26 January 2025}} significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?country=~IDN|access-date=21 January 2025|website=Our World in Data}} a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),{{Cite web|title=Child mortality rate|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-mortality-igme?tab=line&country=~IDN|access-date=21 January 2025|website=Our World in Data}} polio eradication in 2014, and decreasing cases of malaria.{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/indonesia/news/detail/20-09-2023-overcoming-challenges-on-the-path-to-malaria-elimination--lessons-from-java-and-bali|title=Overcoming challenges on the path to malaria elimination: lessons from Java and Bali|publisher=World Health Organization|date=23 September 2023|access-date=26 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250126060425/https://www.who.int/indonesia/news/detail/20-09-2023-overcoming-challenges-on-the-path-to-malaria-elimination--lessons-from-java-and-bali|archive-date=26 January 2025}}

Some chronic health issues persist, including child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.{{citation|title=Stunting in Indonesia: Understanding the roots of the problem and solutions|publisher=Center for Parliamentary Analysis, Expertise Agency of DPR RI|author=Tri Rini Puji Lestari|work=Info Singkat|url=https://pusaka.dpr.go.id/produk/info-singkat|volume=15|issue=14|date=July 2023}} Low air quality, particularly in major cities,{{cite web|url=https://www.iqair.com/indonesia|title=Air Quality in Indonesia|publisher=IQ Air|access-date=26 January 2025}} contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region.{{cite journal|title=High maternal mortality rate in Indonesia: a challenge to be addressed immediately|journal=Pan African Medical Journal|publisher=One Health|author=Suparji Suparji|display-authors=etal|volume=14|issue=13|date=19 July 2024|doi=10.11604/pamj-oh.2024.14.13.44464|doi-access=free}} Additionally, Indonesia has one of the highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: The tobacco industry's "Disneyland"|journal=Canadian Association Medical Journal|publisher=Canadian Medical Association|author=Paul Christopher Webster|volume=185|issue=2|date=5 February 2013|pages=E97–E98|doi=10.1503/cmaj.109-4342|pmid=23296586|pmc=3563903}}

{{Main|Culture of Indonesia}} {{See also|National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia|Public holidays in Indonesia}}

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years and has been influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe,{{cite web|url=http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf|title=Culture and Customs of Indonesia|last=Forshee|first=Jill|publisher=Greenwood Press|date=2006|access-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152700/http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2017}}{{cite encyclopedia|last=Henley|first=David|title=I ndonesia|date=2015|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism|pages=1–7|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781118663202.wberen460|chapter=Indonesia|isbn=978-1-118-66320-2}} Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country's multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity, distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Recent joint nominations added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/indonesia-ID?info=elements-on-the-lists|title=Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=21 January 2025}}

{{Main|Indonesian art|Architecture of Indonesia}}

{{Further|Indonesian painting}}

{{multiple image

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|image1 = Raden Saleh - Six Horsemen Chasing Deer, 1860.jpg

|caption1 = Six Horsemen Chasing Deer (1860) by Raden Saleh

|image2 = Tongkonan Pallawa Toraja Utara.jpg

|caption2 = Tongkonan, a traditional Torajan vernacular house

|image3 = Gedung Sate Oktober 2024 - Rahmatdenas (cropped).jpg

|caption3 = Gedung Sate, an example of Sundanese and foreign architecture in West Java

|image4 = Pagaruyung palace.jpg

|caption4 = Pagaruyung Palace, a Minangkabau architecture from West Sumatra}}

Indonesian arts encompass traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade.{{cite web|url=http://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html|title=Indonesian Arts and Crafts|publisher=Living in Indonesia: A site for expats|access-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121030307/https://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html|archive-date=21 January 2025}} Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java.{{cite web|url=http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf|title=Balinese Traditional Paintings|last=Forge|first=Anthony|publisher=The Australian Museum|date=1978|access-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220200212/http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2016}} Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique customs and histories.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oup15S3lTDAC|title= Indonesian Houses Volume 1: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture|publisher=National University of Singapore Press|year=2004|isbn=978-9971-69-292-6|editor1=Reimar Schefold|editor2=Peter Nas|editor3=Gaudenz Domenig|page=5|access-date=31 May 2020|doi=10.1163/9789004483255}} Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.

Discoveries of megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities,{{cite web|url=http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/|title=Indonesian Culture; Arts and Tradition|publisher=Embassy of Indonesia, Athens|date=30 September 2010|access-date=26 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121030402/https://web.archive.org/web/20161226171504/http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/|archive-date=21 January 2025}}Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia {{ISBN|978-0-8248-2924-7}} p. 113Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective: R.P. Soejono's Festschrift {{ISBN|979-26-2499-6}} pp. 298–299 who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples,{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|title=Borobudur Temple Compounds|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=21 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121030701/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|archive-date=21 January 2025}} which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.

{{Main|Music of Indonesia|Dance in Indonesia|National costume of Indonesia}}

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East,{{cite book|editor-last=Harnish|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Rasmussen|editor2-first=Anne|year=2011|title=Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia|publisher=Oxford University Press}} keroncong from Portugal,{{cite journal|last1=Ridhwan|first1=Urfan Saniylabdhawega|last2=Milyartini|first2=Rita|last3=Sukmayadi|first3=Yudi|title=Keroncong, Existence, and Z Generation|journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research|series=Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Arts and Design Education (ICADE 2021)|publisher=Atlantis Press SARL|date=15 June 2022|volume=665|pages=308–313|doi=10.2991/assehr.k.220601.065|isbn=978-94-6239-583-1}} and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.{{cite book|author-link=Ariel Heryanto|last=Heryanto|first=Ariel|year=2008|title=Popular Culture in Indonesia: Fluid Identities in Post-Authoritarian Politics|publisher=Routledge}} Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.{{cite web|url=https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t|title=Music Amid the Indonesia-Malaysia Conflict|publisher=Tirto.id|language=id|last=Abdulsalam|first=Husein|date=23 August 2017|access-date=5 December 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121031050/https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t|archive-date=21 January 2025}}{{cite web|url=https://www.fimela.com/news-entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga|title=Editor Says: Ketika Musik Indonesia Berjaya di Negeri Tetangga|publisher=Fimela|language=id|last=Zulmi|first=Nizar|date=8 June 2017|access-date=5 December 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121031118/https://www.fimela.com/entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga|archive-date=21 January 2025}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtWdhQ7vc6kC&pg=PA71|title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar|last1=Adelaar|first1=K. Alexander|last2=Himmelmann|first2=Nikolaus|date=7 March 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75509-5|page=71|access-date=8 March 2022|doi=10.4324/9780203821121}}

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Katoenen wikkelrok met geometrisch patroon TMnr 5713-2.jpg]]

With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship,{{cite web|url=http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|title=Indonesia Tourism: The Dance and Theater in the Archipelago|publisher=Indonesia Tourism|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121031242/https://web.archive.org/web/20101124083455/http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|archive-date=21 January 2025}} such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.{{cite web|url=https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|title=Land of Dance & Dragon|publisher=National Heritage Board|author=Chua Mei Lin|date=January–March 2011|access-date=6 December 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206060336/https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|archive-date=6 December 2020}}

Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes like batik and kebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm|title=Cultural feast at ASEAN Fair|last=Ziyi|first=Xia|publisher=Xinhua|date=16 November 2011|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121031450/https://web.archive.org/web/20111219173602/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm|archive-date=21 January 2025}}Jill Forshee, Culture and customs of Indonesia, Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: {{ISBN|0-313-33339-4}}. 237 pp. Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.

{{Gallery

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|File:Gamelan Player 1.JPG

|File:Angklung-arumba.jpg

|File:Tari Pendet.jpg

|File:Jaipongan Bunga Tanjung 02.jpg

|footer=Indonesian music and dance. Clockwise from top: A gamelan player, Angklung, Sundanese Jaipongan Mojang Priangan dance, Balinese Pendet dance.

}}

{{Main|Cinema of Indonesia|Theatre of Indonesia}}

{{Further|List of highest-grossing films in Indonesia}}

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry, often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.{{cite web|url=https://education.asianart.org/resources/the-history-of-indonesian-puppet-theater-wayang/|title=The History of Indonesian Puppet Theater (Wayang)}}Retrieved 07 February 2025 Other forms of drama, such as Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong,{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre|title=Southeast Asian arts|last=José|first=Maceda|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=20 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121032037/https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre|archive-date=21 January 2025}}{{cite web|url=https://www.insideindonesia.org/archive/articles/a-rare-view|title=A rare view|publisher=Inside Indonesia|author=Baulch, Emma|date=19 September 2010|access-date=27 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250127023359/https://www.insideindonesia.org/archive/articles/a-rare-view|archive-date=27 January 2025}} and Balinese dance dramas, often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance|title=Indonesia – Theatre and Dance|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=29 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121032331/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance|archive-date=21 January 2025}} Unique traditions like the Minangkabau Randai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals.{{cite journal|title=The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre|last=Pauka|first=Kirstin|journal=The Drama Review|volume=42|issue=1|pages=113–121|year=1998|doi=10.1162/105420498760308706|s2cid=57565023}}{{cite web|url=http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/glossary/randai/|title=Randai (Indonesian folk theater form, uses silat)|date=8 March 2011|publisher=MIT Global Shakespeares|access-date=18 December 2016|archive-date=27 January 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250127020452/https://web.archive.org/web/20160316100101/http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/glossary/randai/|url-status=live}} Modern theatre, exemplified by Teater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.{{cite web|url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre|title=Review: Indonesian post-colonial theatre|last=Hatley|first=Barbara|publisher=Inside Indonesia|date=13 November 2017|access-date=21 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121032522/https://www.insideindonesia.org/archive/articles/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre|archive-date=21 January 2025}}

The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.{{cite web|url=https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|title=Today Is the 97th Birthday of the Father of Indonesian Cinema. Here's What You Should Know About Usmar Ismail|publisher=TIME|date=20 March 2018|access-date=20 November 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121032628/https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|archive-date=21 January 2025}} During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Krishna|editor=Giecko, Anne Tereska|title=Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order|publisher=Berg|year=2006|location=Oxford/New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96 96–107]|isbn=978-1-84520-237-8|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96}} Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.{{cite journal|last=Paramaditha|first=Intan|title=Film Studies in Indonesia: An Experiment of a New Generation|journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia|publisher=Brill|date=1 January 2017|volume=173|issue=2–3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1163/22134379-17302006|doi-access=free}}

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.{{cite journal|last1=Huda|first1=Ahmad Nuril|title=Indonesian Cinema after the New Order: Going Mainstream|journal=Journal of Religion & Film|publisher=Digital Commons at the University of Nebraska Ohama|date=April 2022|volume=26|issue=1|doi=10.32873/uno.dc.jrf.26.01.55|doi-access=free}} Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love, producing notable films such as Kuldesak (1999) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002). The 2022 film KKN di Desa Penari set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.{{cite magazine|url=https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/|title=Indonesian Films Race Past Pre-Pandemic Admissions Record; 'KKN Di Desa Penari', 'Satan's Slaves 2', Disney Movies Top 2022 Box Office; Theatrical Market Set For Growth|last=Shackleton|first=Liz|magazine=Deadline|date=22 December 2022|access-date=26 December 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121033023/https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/|archive-date=21 January 2025}} The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg|The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance|alt=

File:Loetoeng Kasaroeng p67.jpg|Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies

{{Main|Mass media in Indonesia|Indonesian literature}}

File:Pramudya Ananta Tur Kesusastraan Modern Indonesia p226.jpg, Indonesia's famous novelist. Many considered him to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature{{cite web|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/pramoedya|title=Pramoedya|publisher=Prospect|last=Templer|first=Robert|date=20 June 1999|access-date=29 August 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121033334/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/essays/55912/pramoedya|archive-date=21 January 2025}}]]

Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.{{cite book|last=Shannon L.|first=Smith|author2=Lloyd Grayson J.|title=Indonesia Today: Challenges of History|publisher=Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2001|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-0-7425-1761-5}} The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by the public broadcaster TVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels.{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|url=https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038834|title=Indonesia: A country study|series=Area handbook series |editor-first=William H.|editor-last=Frederick|editor2-first=Robert L.|editor2-last=Worden|publisher=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|edition=6th|date=2011|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6|access-date=15 March 2015|archive-date=9 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209105017/https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038834|url-status=live}}}} Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998. Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994.{{cite journal|last1=Jennifer Yang|first1=Hui|title=The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites|publisher=Routledge|journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism|date=12 January 2010|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–191|doi=10.1080/10576100903400605|hdl=10356/79840|hdl-access=free}} By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.{{cite report|title=The Rise of Indonesia's Digital Economy|url=https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/case-studies/the-rise-of-indonesia-s-digital-economy.pdf?sfvrsn=c607020a_0|last=Taojun|first=Xie|date=March 2025|access-date=8 May 2025|work=LKYSPP Case Study Library|publisher=Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508031750/https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/case-studies/the-rise-of-indonesia-s-digital-economy.pdf?sfvrsn=c607020a_0|archive-date=8 May 2025}} Internet penetration continues to grow annually.

Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition,{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|title=Preserving intangible cultural heritage in Indonesia|last1=Czermak|first1=Karin|last2=Delanghe|first2=Philippe|last3=Weng|first3=Wei|publisher=SIL International|access-date=9 July 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|archive-date=9 July 2007}} while early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.{{cite book|last=Joy Freidus|first=Alberta|year=1977|title=Sumatran Contributions to the Development of Indonesian Literature, 1920–1942|publisher=Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii}}{{cite book|author=Seong Chee Tham|title=Essays on Literature and Society in Southeast Asia: Political and Sociological Perspectives|page=99|date=1981|location=Kent Ridge, Singapore|publisher=Singapore University Press|isbn=978-9971-69-036-6|url={{Google books|id=h6SOvP6FLskC|page=99|plainurl=yes}}}} Traditional forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.{{cite web|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/|title=An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor|last=Boediman|first=Manneke|work=Jakarta Globe|date=14 October 2015|access-date=26 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121033506/https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor|archive-date=21 January 2025}} Influenced by the country's political and social landscape dynamics,{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|title='17,000 islands of imagination': discovering Indonesian literature|work=The Guardian|last=Doughty|first=Louis|date=28 May 2016|access-date=26 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160607210947/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|archive-date=7 June 2016}} modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

{{Main|Indonesian cuisine}}

File:Nasi ramas rendang.JPG with rendang, gulai, and vegetables|alt=]]

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.{{cite book|last=Witton|first=Patrick|title=World Food: Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2002|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-009-9}} Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.{{cite book|last=Brissendon|first=Rosemary|title=South East Asian Food|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|year=2003|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74066-013-6}}

Some popular dishes, such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, mie ayam, bakso, sate, and soto, are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html|title=Celebratory rice cone dish to represent the archipelago|last=Natahadibrata|first=Nadya|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=10 February 2014|access-date=14 July 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121033855/https://web.archive.org/web/20140714213059/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html|archive-date=21 January 2025}} Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Minangkabau cuisines, along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, which is similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.{{cite journal|last1=Sastraatmadja|first1=D. D.|display-authors=etal|year=2002|title=Production of High-Quality Oncom, a Traditional Indonesian Fermented Food, by the Inoculation with Selected Mold Strains in the Form of Pure Culture and Solid Inoculum|journal=Journal of the Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University|volume=70|hdl=115/13163}}

{{Clear}}

{{Main|Sport in Indonesia|Indonesian martial arts}}

File:Pencak Silat Betawi 1.jpg, a form of martial arts]]Badminton and football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, badminton is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's premier football league. On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies.{{cite web|url=https://voi.id/en/sports/433262|title=Indonesian Football History: Dutch East Indies Qualified for the 1938 World Cup|publisher=VOI|access-date=8 May 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508014036/https://voi.id/en/sports/433262|archive-date=8 May 2025}} On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996.{{Cite web|publisher=VnExpress|title=Indonesia get past Asian Cup group stage for first time|url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/football/indonesia-get-past-asian-cup-group-stage-for-first-time-4705341.html|access-date=29 March 2024|language=en}}

Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.{{cite web|url=http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|title=History of Basketball in Indonesia|publisher=National Basketball League Indonesia|access-date=8 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121033930/https://web.archive.org/web/20160908220708/http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|archive-date=21 January 2025}} Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,{{cite news|url=https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|title=Lack of Gold|publisher=Tempo|date=8 September 2017|access-date=16 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121033955/https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|archive-date=21 January 2025}} most recently in 2011.{{cite news|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011|title=Final medal tally SEA Games 2011|newspaper=ANTARA News|date=22 November 2011|access-date=16 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250121034020/https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011|archive-date=21 January 2025}}

• List of Indonesia-related topics
• Index of Indonesia-related articles
• Outline of Indonesia

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZtDIhWzFeUC|title=Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society|editor-last=Ammon|editor-first=Ulrich|editor-last2=Dittmar|editor-first2=Norbert|editor-last3=Mattheier|editor-first3=Klaus J.|editor-last4=Trudgill|editor-first4=Peter|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2006|edition=2nd, revised and extended|volume=3|isbn=978-3-11-018418-1|access-date=29 June 2010}}
• {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC|title=Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education|access-date=19 May 2010|first1=Colin|last1=Baker|first2=Sylvia|last2=Prys Jones|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=1998|isbn=978-1-85359-362-8}}
• {{cite book|last=Bevins|first=Vincent|author-link=Vincent Bevins|title=The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World|date=2020|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-5417-4240-6}}
• {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC|title=The Phonology of Dutch.|first=Geert|last=Booij|work=Oxford Linguistics|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-823869-X|access-date=24 May 2010}}
• {{cite book|last=Cribb|first=Robert|title=Historical atlas of Indonesia|publisher=Routledge|year=2013}}
• {{cite book|last=Crouch|first=Harold|title=The army and politics in Indonesia|publisher=Cornell UP|year=2019}}
• {{cite journal|last=Earl|first=George SW|title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia |year=1850}}
• {{cite book|last=Effendy|first=Bahtiar|title=Islam and the State in Indonesia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2003}}
• {{Cite journal|last=Emmers|first=Ralf|date=2005|title=Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam|journal=Asian Survey|publisher=University of California Press|volume=45|issue=4|pages=645–665|doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645|jstor=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645}}
• {{cite book|last1=Fossati|first1=Diego|first2=Yew-Foong|last2=Hui|title=The Indonesia national survey project: Economy, society and politics|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|year=2017}}
• {{cite book|editor-surname1=Frederick|editor-given1=William H.|editor-surname2=Worden|editor-given2=Robert L.|year=2011|title=Indonesia: A Country Study|series=Area handbook series, 39|others=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|edition=6th|place=Washington, DC|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6}}
• {{cite book|surname=Friend|given=T.|title=Indonesian Destinies|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-674-01137-6|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book|last1=Hadiz|first1=Vedi R.|first2=Richard|last2=Robison|title=The political economy of oligarchy and the reorganization of power in Indonesia|chapter=Beyond Oligarchy|publisher=Cornell UP|year=2014|pages=35–56|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519011543/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=19 May 2021|url-status=live}}
• {{cite book|last=Human Rights Watch|title=World Report 2025: Events of 2024|publisher=HRW, 2025| url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2025/01/World%20Report%202025.pdf}}
• {{cite book|last=Indonesia|first=Statistics|title=Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2009|publisher=Statistics Indonesia, 2019|url=https://seadelt.net/Asset/Source/Document_ID-184_No-01.pdf}}
• {{cite book|last=Kitley|first=Philip|title=Television, nation, and culture in Indonesia|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2014}}
• {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Mietzner|first1=Marcus|first2=Burhanuddin|last2=Muhtadi|title=Explaining the 2016 Islamist mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious intolerance, militant groups and the politics of accommodation|journal=Asian Studies Review|issue=42|volume=3|year=2018|pages=479–497|doi=10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335|s2cid=150302264|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326286879}}
• {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=1991|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300|edition=2nd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=0-333-57690-X}}
• {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=2001|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200|edition=3rd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC}}
• {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date=2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-8886-3}}
• {{cite book|surname=Schwarz|given=A.|year=1994|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=1-86373-635-2|url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}}
• {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2}}
• {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=John G.|author-link=John G.Taylor|title=East Timor: the price of Freedom|publisher=Zed Books|year=1999}}
• {{cite book|surname=Vickers|given=Adrian|title=A History of Modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-521-54262-6}}
• {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R. E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A. A.|year=1996|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Hong Kong}}
• Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in Beyond Oligarchy (Cornell UP, 2014) pp. 11–34. [https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023093720/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1|date=23 October 2020}}
• {{cite book|last=Witton|first=Patrick|year=2003|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6}}

{{refend}}

{{Library resources box}}

• [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ID Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia] from International Futures

• [https://indonesia.go.id/?lang=2 Government] – Official website of the Government of Indonesia
• [https://www.presidenri.go.id Presidency] – official website of the president of Indonesia
• [https://www.wapresri.go.id Vice President] – official website of the vice president of Indonesia
• [http://mpr.go.id People's Consultative Assembly] – official website of People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indobesia
• [http://www.dpd.go.id Regional Representative Council] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203091543/http://www.dpd.go.id/ |date=3 December 2016 }} – official website of Indonesia Regional Representative Council
• [http://www.dpr.go.id House of Representatives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204074445/http://www.dpr.go.id/ |date=4 February 2012 }} – official website of Indonesia House of Representatives
• [https://www.mahkamahagung.go.id/en Supreme Court] – official website of the Supreme Court of Indonesia
• [https://en.mkri.id Constitutional Court] – official website of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia
• [https://bps.go.id Statistics] – official website of Central Agency of Statistics

• [https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/23704/1/HISTORY%20OF%20INDONESIA%20A%20RESOURCE%20BOOK.pdf "History"] – Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi

• [https://indonesia.travel/gb/en Wonderful Indonesia] – Indonesia's official tourism portal

• {{Wikiatlas}}
• {{Osmrelation-inline|304751}}

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|title=Articles relating to Indonesia

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{{Government of Indonesia}}

{{Provinces of Indonesia}}

{{Countries and territories of Southeast Asia}}

{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}

{{Countries of Asia}}

{{Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)}}

{{BRICS}}

{{G20}}

{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}}

{{D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation}}

{{Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}}

{{Non-Aligned Movement}}

{{Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)}}}}

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Indonesia

Category:Countries in Asia

Category:Member states of ASEAN

Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

Category:1945 establishments in Indonesia

Category:Island countries

Category:1945 establishments in Asia

Category:1945 establishments in Southeast Asia

Category:Countries in Melanesia

Category:Developing 8 Countries member states

Category:G15 nations

Category:G20 members

Category:Former OPEC member states

Category:Maritime Southeast Asia

Category:Member states of the United Nations

Category:Republics

Category:Southeast Asian countries

Category:States and territories established in 1945

Category:Countries and territories where Malay is an official language

Category:BRICS nations