Betawi language

The origin of Betawi is of debate to linguists; many consider it to be a Malay dialect descended from Proto-Malayic, while others consider it to have developed as a creole. It is believed that descendants of Chinese men and Balinese women in Batavia converted to Islam and spoke a pidgin that was later creolized, and then decreolized incorporating many elements from Sundanese and Javanese (Uri Tadmor 2013).{{Cite web |url=https://indoling.com/ismil/17/abstracts/Tadmor.pdf |title=On the Origin of the Betawi and their Language |last=Tadmor |first=Uri |date=2013 |publisher=ISMIL 17 conference talk}}

Betawi has large amounts of Hokkien Chinese, Arabic, Portuguese, and Dutch loanwords. Especially the Indonesian Arabic variation which greatly influences the vocabulary in this language.{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/61389887|title=Kebudayaan Masyarakat Keturunan Arab Di Jakarta, Studi Kasus di Kampung Arab Condet|year=2021|access-date=10 July 2024|language=id|first=Lina Aulia|last=Rahman|format=PDF|journal=Program Studi Magister Kajian Timur Tengah dan Islam|location=Jakarta, Indonesia|publisher=University of Indonesia}} It replaced the earlier Portuguese creole of Batavia, Mardijker. The first-person pronoun {{Lang|bew|gua}} ('I' or 'me') and second-person pronoun {{Lang|bew|lu}} ('you') and numerals such as {{Lang|bew|cepé'}} ('a hundred'), {{Lang|bew|gopé'}} ('five hundred'), and {{Lang|bew|secèng}} ('a thousand') are from Hokkien, whereas the words {{Lang|bew|anè}} ('I' or 'me') and {{Lang|bew|énté}} ('you') are derived from Arabic. Cocos Malay, spoken in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Australia and Sabah, Malaysia is believed to have derived from an earlier form of Betawi Malay.

File:Base Betawi.webm

File:Bahasa Betawi Pinggiran.jpg]]

There is no absolute consensus among linguists regarding the classification of the varieties of Batavian language. The most popular classification divides Batavian into two varieties (dialects or subdialects),{{cite book |last= Muhadjir |date= 1984|title= Morfologi Dialek Jakarta: Afiksasi dan Reduplikasi|trans-title= Morphology of Jakarta Dialect|language= id|location= Jakarta|publisher= Penerbit Djambatan|page= 4}} i.e.:

• Middle Batavian or Urban Batavian dialect (Betawi Tengah or Betawi Kota): originally spoken within the Urban Jakarta region, which is mainly characterized by an obvious realization of final {{IPAblink|a}} to {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, e.g.: {{Lang|ms|ada}} {{IPA|[ada]}} (Malay) 'to be (existence)' → {{Lang|bew|adè}} {{IPA|[adɛ]}}.
• Suburban Batavian or Ora Batavian dialect (Betawi Pinggiran or Betawi Ora): originally spoken in suburban Jakarta, Tangerang in Banten, Depok, Bogor, and Bekasi in West Java, which is characterized by the retention of final {{IPAblink|a}} or a change into {{IPA|[ah]}}, e.g. {{Lang|bew|gua}} {{IPA|[gua]}} or {{Lang|bew|guah}} {{IPA|[guah]}} 'I, me' instead of {{Lang|bew|guè}} {{IPA|[guɛ]}}, and the use of {{Lang|bew|ora}} 'no, not' as a negation particle instead of {{Lang|bew|kaga'}} which is used in the Middle dialect.

Chaer (1982) divided the language into four subdialects, which are based mainly on—but not limited to—phonological realization variations,{{cite book |last= Chaer |first= Abdul |date= 1982|title= Kamus Dialek Jakarta|trans-title= Dictionary of Jakarta Dialect|language= id|location= Ende|publisher= Penerbit Nusa Indah|page= xviii–xix}} i.e.:

• Meester subdialect, spread across Jatinegara, Kampung Melayu, and the surrounding areas.
• Tanah Abang subdialect, spread across Tanah Abang, Petamburan, and the surrounding areas.
• Karet subdialect, spread across Karet, Senayan, Kuningan, Menteng and the surrounding areas.
• Kebayoran subdialect, spread across suburban and rural areas of the Batavian-speaking region.

The table below briefly describes the final sound realization variations between the subdialects drawn by Chaer (1982):

However, Chaer (2015) also made a classification of dialectal variations based on the typology of Batavian subgroups, which is divided into three dialectal variations,{{cite book |last= Chaer |first= Abdul |date= 2015|title= Betawi Tempo Doeloe: Menelusuri Sejarah Kebudayaan Betawi|trans-title= Batavia in the Past: Exploring the History of Batavian Culture|language= id|location= Jakarta|publisher= Penerbit Masup Jakarta|page= 14-16, 75-78}} i.e.:

• Urban variation (Betawi Kota or Betawi Tengah)
• Sububrban variation
• Rural variation (Betawi Ora{{'}})

Apart from a geographical basis, this typology is also based on final phoneme realization variations. This table describes the differences between these variations as cited in Chaer (2015).{{sfn|Chaer|2015|p=75-78}}

Meanwhile, Grijns (1991) drew the classification into 7 distinct dialects (or dialect clusters).{{cite book |last= Grijns|first= C. D.|date= 1991|title= Jakarta| volume= 1|location= Leiden|publisher= KITLV Press|page= 199-246}} These dialectal differences are drawn not only based on phonological realization variations—unlike other classifications that are mainly focused only on these phonological realization variations of final sounds—but also based on morphological and lexical differences (including lexical compatibility with other languages, such as Balinese, Javanese, Malay, and Sundanese). This is the classification of the dialects:

• Urban Jakarta Malay dialect: spoken mainly within the urban area of Jakarta. The most conspicuous feature of this dialect is the occurrence of {{Lang|bew|è}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}} as the realization of the final diaphoneme {{Lang|bew|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}, e.g.: {{Lang|id|berapa}} {{IPA|[bərapa]}} 'how many, how much' → {{Lang|bew|berapè}} {{IPA|[bərapɛ]}}. From a lexical compatibility aspect, this language has a high lexical compatibility with Malay and Indonesian. Javanese and Sundanese influences are roughly almost equal while Balinese is not dominant.
• Cengkareng-Grogol Petamburan-Kebayoran Baru dialect: spoken in several parts of West Jakarta and Senayan. From a lexical compatibility aspect, Javanese and Sundanese influences are roughly equal. However, lexical compatibility with Malay is lower, while Balinese influence is insignificant. Another typical feature of this dialect is the realization of the final diaphoneme {{Lang|bew|a}} {{IPA|[a]}} with {{Lang|bew|e}} {{IPA|[ə]}} (schwa) in several places belonging to this dialect, e.g.: {{{Lang|id|dia}} {{IPA|[dia]}} 'how many, how much' → {{Lang|bew|die}} {{IPA|[diə]}}.
• Pasar Rebo dialect: spoken in several parts of East Jakarta, especially in the Pasar Rebo, Pulo Gadung and the surrounding areas. Lexically, this dialect has roughly almost equal Javanese and Sundanese influences with a few Malay influences.
• Ciputat dialect: spoken across the western part of the Batavian-speaking region, comprising the Ciputat, South Tangerang, Depok, and several parts of Northern Bogor. Lexically, Javanese influence is higher than Sundanese influence, although the difference is not significant.
• Gunung Sindur dialect: spoken in the southwestern part of the Batavian-speaking region, especially in the Gunung Sindur region. The Sundanese influence is dominant in this dialect, followed by Javanese influence.
• Pebayuran dialect: spoken in the eastern part of the Batavian-speaking region, mainly in Bekasi region. The main distinct feature of this dialect is a strong Sundanese influence, both lexically and morphologically. Javanese influence is less prevalent than Sundanese, while Malay influence is insignificant.
• Mauk-Sepatan dialect: spoken in the northeastern part of the Batavian-speaking region, precisely in the Mauk and Sepatan which are located on the northern coast of Tangerang Regency. Despite high Banten Javanese and Sundanese influences, the lexical compatibility with Malay/Indonesian is also high.

However, Von de Wall (1909) also noted a dialect of the Batavian language, which has the visible feature of the final {{Lang|bew|a}} {{IPA|[a]}} realization as {{Lang|bew|ĕ}} {{IPA|[ə]}}.{{cite journal |last1= von Dewall|first1= A.|date= 1909|title= Bataviaasch-Maleische Taalstudiën |trans-title= Batavian Malay Language Study |url= https://kitlv-docs.library.leiden.edu/open/Metamorfoze/TBG/MMKITLV01_PDF_TS2332_1909_51.pdf|journal= Tijdschrift voor Indische taal-, land- en volkenkunde|volume= 51|publisher= Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen|pages= 191–221|language= nl |access-date=}} The usage of this "older" dialect started to fade later and to be replaced gradually with {{Lang|bew|è}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}.{{sfn|Grijns|1991|p=211}} In 1971, Grijns (1991) could still witness a consistent realization of {{Lang|bew|ĕ}} {{IPA|[ə]}} in Kebon Pala.{{sfn|Grijns|1991|p=211}} Here is an example of this dialect usage:

Even though the Urban Jakarta dialect with its final {{Lang|bew|è}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}} realization stereotypes the Batavian language throughout Indonesia,{{sfn|Grijns|1991|p=204}} there is no concept of a certain regional dialect being considered as "higher" or "more prestigious" than the other dialects among Batavians.{{sfn|Chaer|1982|p=xx}} However, dialect-mixing is also found in some cases, especially on social media posts.{{cite thesis |last= Nanda |first= R. A. |year= 2025 |title= Sikap Bahasa dalam Lanskap Linguistik Posting-an Akun Instagram Bertemakan Kebudayaan Betawi| trans-title= Language Attitude in the Linguistic Landscape of Batavian Culture-related Instagram Accounts' Posts |degree= Master's|location= Depok|publisher= University of Indonesia|page= 43, 47}}

File:Betawi.jpg 1:9-11 in Middle Betawi dialect]]

File:Markus Betawi.ogg

{{Lang|bew|Semuè orang, mah, èmang diberocotin ènggal amè ngelè argè diri amè hak-hak nyang sembabad. Tu orang padè diangsrongin deri sononya pikiran amè liangsim mengkènyè udè kudunyè, dèh, padè segalang-segulung nyampur amè nyang laènnyè dengen sumanget sudaraan.}}

{{Lang|bew|Orang dari sonohnya, mah, èmang diberocotinnya pada bébas ama gableg arga diri ama hak nyang sembabad. Tu orang udah dikasi pikiran ama liangsim mangkanya udah kudunya, dah, tuh, pada gaul campur dengen semanget sedaraan.{{cn|date=August 2024}}}}

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

{{Lang|ms|Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan samarata dari segi kemuliaan dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.}}

• Cocos Malay
• Indonesian slang

{{reflist}}

• {{Cite thesis |last=Ikranagara |first=Kay |title=Melayu Betawi grammar |date=1975 |degree=Ph. D. |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |hdl=10125/11720 |hdl-access=free }}

• [https://www.eva.mpg.de/linguistics/past-research-resources/documentation-and-description/documentation-of-betawi Documentation of Betawi]

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Category:Betawi

Category:Malay-based pidgins and creoles

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