British high-tech architecture

British high-tech architecture{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Colin |title=High Tech Architecture |year=1988 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=0-500-27534-3}} is a term applied principally to the work of a group of London-based architects, British High-Tech Architects, who, by following the teachings of the Architectural Association's futuristic programmes, created an architectural style best characterised by cultural and design ideals of: component-based, light weight, easily transportable, factory-finished using standardised interchangeable highly engineered parts, fun, popular and spontaneous Pop-up buildings.

Within the Architectural Association were a number of overlapping spheres of influence – the most notable being Archigram, a loosely arranged group including Peter Cook (responsible for Plug-in City and Instant City), Mike Webb (Sin Centre) and Ron Herron (Walking City).{{cite book |last1=Lyall |first1=Sutherland |title=Imagination Headquarters |date=1992 |publisher=Phaidon Press Ltd |location=London |pages=7–8}} Alongside Archigram were the mechanistic schemes of Cedric Price,{{cite book |last1=Price |first1=Cedric |title=Cedric Price Square Book |date=1984 |publisher=Wiley-Academy |location=Chichester West Sussex |isbn=0470-85146-5}} who, with engineer Frank Newby, designed a number of unbuilt projects, most notably Fun Palace, a community theatre to the brief of Joan Littlewood, and Potteries Think-belt, a scheme which would re-use decommissioned railway routes to create a university on wheels. Price also promoted the idea of architecture having a fourth dimension: Time. In addition to the aforementioned was the Independent Group (art movement), which influenced the British side of the pop art movement, through architectural luminaries Peter Smithson a Head of the Architectural Association and Colin St John Wilson.

The British high-tech movement remained in the ascendency from the 1960s until 1984, when an intervention by HRH Charles Prince of Wales over a competition-winning design by ABK Architects (previously Ahrends, Burton and Koralek) for an extension to the National Gallery in London signalled an end to High Tech architecture in the UK. More, from that date, the group of leading proponents of British High Tech architecture distanced themselves from the High Tech style to endear themselves to sponsors. By such action, they would continue to design buildings of national and international significance. In satisfying the demands of conservative clients, planners, conservationists and funding organisations, the essence of High Tech was lost.

This article, British high-tech architecture, traces the development of technological advances and industrial innovations that went hand-in-hand with the emergence of the High Tech style, and without which British high-tech architecture would have remained where it started – as the pop art{{cite book |last1=Osterwold |first1=Tilman |title=Pop Art |date=2003 |publisher=Taschen |location=Köln |isbn=3-8228-2070-9}} imagery of Archigram,{{cite book |last1=Sadler |first1=Simon |title=Archigram: Architecture Without Architecture. |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge MA: MIT Press. |isbn=978-0262693226}} the most influential of the Architectural Association visionary groups.

The history of light-weight, mass-produced, component-based dry construction, which, as a means of assembly differentiates system building from traditional building methods, dates back to the 19th C. It started in the UK with Sir Joseph Paxton's{{cite book |last1=Colquhoun |first1=Kate |title=The Busiest Man in England: The Life of Joseph Paxton, Gardener, Architect, and Victorian Visionary |date=2006 |publisher=David R. Godine Publisher Inc; Annotated edition (16 March 2006) |isbn=978-1567923018}} newly created building methods at Chatsworth House's{{cite web |last1=Engineering Timelines |title=Chatsworth Conservatory and Lily House, site of |url=http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=725 |website=engineering-timelines.com |access-date=5 May 2021}} conservatory completed in 1840, and later at The Great Exhibition{{cite book |last1=Hobhouse |first1=Hermione |title=The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition. |date=2004 |publisher=Continuum; 1st Edition in this form. |location=London; New York |isbn=978-0826478412}} of 1851, when he used steam-powered woodworking machines to manufacture batches of identical components. At the same time (1829), Henry Robinson Palmer patented corrugated iron,{{cite book |last1=Mornement, Adam |first1=Holloway, Simon |title=Mornement AdamCorrugated Iron Building on the Frontier |date=2007 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |location=London |isbn=978-0-7112-2654-8}} using his invention to construct a shed roof for the London Dock Company the following year.

Progress continued in another industry entirely, the lattice framed trusses required for airships developed by Barnes Wallis{{cite book |last1=Morpurgo |first1=J.E. |title=Barnes Wallis A Biography. |date=1981 |publisher=Ian Allan |location=Shepperton Surrey |isbn=0-7110-1119-2}} at Howden, Yorkshire during his work in the 1920s on the R100 Airship{{cite web |last1=Airship Heritage Trust. |title="R100 Registration: G-FAAV". |url=https://www.airshipsonline.com/airships/r100/images/r100plnl.jpg |access-date=24 April 2021}} resulted in the development of light weight tubes made from spiral-wound duralumin strip in a helical fashion.

Later, solutions to housing shortage and replacement of other war-decimated facilities required fresh thinking about factory rather than site based building, such as the post-war building of Arcon prefabs in the United Kingdom in large numbers, and of system-built schools such as Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme CLASP,{{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=Barry |title=Building Systems Industrialization and Architecture London: . pp. 392–9 and others. ISBN |date=1981 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |location=London |isbn=0-471-27952-8 |pages=392–9}} filtered through to building design in the form of High Tech System Building. Generally, it has been an engineering innovation that has given rise to architectural opportunity.

Between 1961 and 1967 in California, the SCSD (School Construction Systems Development ) project{{cite book |last1=Jencks |first1=Charles |title=Modern Movements in Architecture. |date=1973 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Middlesex England |isbn=0-1402-1534-4 |page=75}} offered architects and educationalists more options than had been available previously - providing greater column-free floor space by using longer spans, and flexible room layouts below. A deep structural zone into which power, H&V, lighting and concertina partition tracks could be accommodated reduced the need for the rigid restrictive planning grids that had hampered the earlier systems.

Further innovations: space frame roof structures derived from WWII aircraft hangar roofs, Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) (to include Square Hollow Section) steel, known in the US as Hollow Structural Section (HSS) developed in the UK by Stewarts & Lloyds Ltd in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and advances in 'Patent Glazing' during the same period of time, which allowed greater freedom in both wall and roof glazing – presented architects and their clients with near-unlimited flexibility in a building's planning, layout of accommodation and use patterns.

The trend for light weight dry construction also had its roots in military fast-response use, when administration, storage or workshop buildings might be required at short notice. The Nissen hut{{cite web |last1=The Nissen Hut |url=https://nissens.co.uk/ |website=nissens.co.uk |title=The Perfect Shelter}} from WWI, and later the Quonset hut{{cite book |last1=Chiei, Chris |first1=Decker, Julie |title=Quonset hut: metal living for a modern age |date=2005 |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-1568986548 |edition=First}}{{cite web |last1=Rogers |first1=J. David |title=QUONSET HUTS |url=https://web.mst.edu/~rogersda/umrcourses/ge342/quonset_huts-revised.pdf |website=web.mst.edu |publisher=Missouri University of Science & Technology |access-date=6 May 2021}} (a derivative of the Nissen design) developed during WWII were both produced in large quantities. However, notwithstanding its origins for military use, light weight design principles were seized upon by American architect and philosopher Richard Buckminster Fuller,{{cite book |last1=Pawley |first1=Martin |title=Buckminster Fuller How much does the building weigh? |date=1990 |publisher=Trefoil Publications Ltd |location=London |isbn=0-86294-160-1}}{{cite book |last1=Seiden |first1=Lloyd Steven |title=Buckminster Fuller's Universe (Paperback 2000 ed.) |date=1989 |publisher=Basic Books A Member of the Persius Books Group |location=New York |isbn=0-7382-0379-3}} who advocated the use of slender or tensile structural components as they would be less wasteful of Earth's scarce resources than would be their bulkier traditional counterparts. His message became something of a creed for the generation of High tech architects. Fuller's designs used well-engineered batch produced components in designs for his renowned Geodesic Domes, although the term 'geodesic' is attributed to Barnes Wallis in his fuselage design for the WWII Lancaster bomber aircraft. German-born Konrad Wachsmann also taught the principles of this type of component-based building design at USC School of Architecture-SAFA.

Most architects associated with British high-tech emerged from the Architectural Association; others worked in London at the offices of those that had. Some, like-minded, had come through the offices of modernists such as Ove Arup and Felix Samuely, who believed in 'total design'{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Peter |title=Ove Arup: Master Builder of the Twentieth Century |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=Yale University |isbn=978-0300112962}} an earlier term for 'multi-disciplinary' design. In addition, a small group of sympathetic structural engineers, including Frank Newby, Anthony Hunt, Ted Happold, Mark Whitby and Peter Rice, became essential to the development of the movement. As a result of the symbiotic association between architects and engineers, a freedom of design evolved away from the constraints of the everyday. Aside from the architectural and engineering impetus, there was a wider cultural involvement as the principal proponents shared friendships centred upon art, writing and industrial design. Most operated as freelancers working in small studio home offices which became their calling-cards identifying with the High Tech{{cite book |last1=Kron, Joan and |first1=Slesin Suzane |title=HIGH-TECH The Industrial Style and Source book for the Home |date=1978 |publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Books Ltd |location=London |isbn=0-7139-1287-1}} style.

• Michael Aukett (1938-2020)
• Reyner Banham (1922-1988){{cite book |last1=Banham |first1=Reyner |title=Design By Choice |date=1981 |publisher=Academy Editions|location=London}}{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=Paul |title=Reyner Banham (1922 -1988) |journal=Architectural Review |date=2019}} Writer and critic
• John Batchelor (illustrator) (1936–2019) Technical Illustrator – aircraft and other – Subjects include work by Foster{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Norman |title=AR 120: Norman Foster on Technology |journal=Architectural Review |date=2017 |issue=AR 120}}
• Misha Black (1910–1977) Contributor to patronage of 1951 Festival of Britain and to Design Research Unit (DRU)
• Hugh Broughton (architect) (b. 1965) Formed Hugh Broughton Architects in 1995
• Cuno Brullmann (b. 1945) Worked in association with Piano + Rogers and Ove Arup and Partners
• Marcus Brumwell (1901–1977), a founder of Design Research Unit (DRU)
• Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983)
• Hugh Casson (1910–1999) Director of Architecture for the 1951 Festival of Britain
• Warren Chalk (1927–1988) Founding member of Archigram{{cite web |title=The Archigram Group |url=http://archigram.net/about.html |website=archigram.net |access-date=21 May 2021}}
• Peter Cook (architect) (b. 1936) founding member of Archigram
• Dennis Crompton (b. 1935) founding member and archivist of Archigram
• Charles and Ray Eames (1907–1978, 1912–1988)
• Ezra Ehrenkrantz (1932–2001) architect of the SCSD (School Construction Systems Development) project
• Norman Foster (b. 1935) co-founder (1963) of Team 4
• Wendy Foster (1937–1989) co-founder (1963) of Team 4
• David Greene (architect) (b. 1937) Founding member of Archigram
• Nicholas Grimshaw (b. 1939) Grimshaw Architects founded in 1980
• Fritz Haller USM Modular Furniture
• Ted Happold (1930–1996) Founded Buro Happold in 1976
• Ron Herron (1930–1994){{cite book |last1=Herron |first1=Ron, Simon, Andrew |title=Herron Notebooks |date=1993 |publisher=Artemis London Limited |location=London |isbn=1-874056-90-0}} Founding member of Archigram
• Andrew Holmes (b. 1947)
• Michael Hopkins (architect) (1935-2023) Former partner at Foster Associates, set up Michael Hopkins Architects in 1976
• Patty Hopkins (b. 1942) Cofounder of Michael Hopkins Architects in 1976, completed Hopkins House, Hampstead in the same year
• Richard Horden (1944–2018)
• John Howard (architect)
• Anthony Hunt (1932-2022) Formed Anthony Hunt Associates in 1962
• Ben Johnson (artist) (b. 1946) Subjects include architectural works by Foster and Rogers
• Jan Kaplický (1937–2009){{cite journal |last1=Kaplický |first1=Jan |title=Looking Back in Envy |journal=Architectural Design |date=2001 |volume=71 |issue=5}}{{cite web |last1=Architecture |first1=Neofuturistic |title=11 Amazing Drawings of Neofuturistic Architecture by Jan Kaplický |url=https://archeyes.com/jan-kaplicky-drawings/ |website=archeyes.com/ |date=6 April 2016 |access-date=14 May 2021}} Drawings of Neo futuristic Architecture
• Ian Liddell (b. 1938)
• Syd Mead (1933–2019){{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Rick |title=Syd Mead Visual Futurist |journal=Epic Illustrated |date=1983 |issue=June 1983}} Artist specialising in Neo futuristic imagery – subjects include concept work for1982 movie Blade Runner
• Max Mengeringenhausen, Founder (1948) of Mero Structures now named Mero-Schmidlin
• John Miller{{cite web |last1=Dictionary of Scottish Architetcs |title=DSA Architect Biography Report |url=http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id=405875 |website=Scottish Architects |access-date=18 May 2021}} (b. c1930) Formed partnership with Alan Colquhoun in 1961
• Hidalgo Moya (1920–1994) Formed partnership with Philip Powell (architect) in 1948
• Edric Neel (1914–1952) Through Arcon sought better links between architects and industry
• Brendan Neiland (artist) (b. 1941) Subjects include architectural works by Grimshaw and Rogers
• Frank Newby (1926–2001)
• Constant Nieuwenhuys (1920–2005)
• David Nixon (architect){{cite book |last1=Nixon David |first1=Stott Nicole |title=International Space Station: Architecture Beyond Earth |date=2016 |publisher=Circa Press |location=London |isbn=978-0993072130}} (b. 1947) Future Systems 1979 founded by Kaplický and Nixon while working at Foster Associates
• Frei Otto (1925-2015)
• Renzo Piano (b.1937) Formed partnership Piano + Rogers in 1971
• Jean Prouvé (1901-1984)
• Cedric Price{{cite news |last1=Milmo |first1=Cahal |title=Cedric Price: The most influential architect you've never heard of |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/architecture/cedric-price-most-influential-architect-you-ve-never-heard-9852200.html |access-date=24 May 2021 |agency=The Independent |date=10 November 2014}} (1934–2003) "Unconventional and visionary architect best-known for buildings which never saw the light of day"{{cite web |last1=University of Cambridge |first1=St John's College |title="Anti-building" for the future: the world of Cedric Price |website=University of Cambridge St John's College |url=https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/anti-building-future-world-cedric-price |access-date=24 May 2021}}
• Peter Rice{{cite web |last1=Kitching, Ruby Joyce, Jane Whitby, Mark |title=Peter Rice |url=http://www.engineering-timelines.com/who/Rice_P/ricePeter.asp |access-date=23 May 2021}} (1935–1992) Joined Ove Arup & Partners in 1956
• Ian Ritchie (architect) (b. 1947) Worked for Foster Associates and with Hopkins/Hunt on SSSALU (short span structures in aluminium){{cite journal |last1=Editorial Year-end Review |title=Industrial |journal=Architectural Review |date=December 1979 |pages=61}}
• Richard Rogers (1933–2021) Co-founder (1963) of Team 4 Partnership with Piano before founding Richard Rogers
• Su Rogers (b. 1939) Co-founder (1963) of Team 4 Partner in Miller & Colquhoun Architects later John Miller & Partners
• Walter Segal (1907–1985) Pioneer of self-build housing to the Segal self-build method
• Rod Sheard (b. 1951) In 1998 Sheard's firm LOBB Sports Architecture (formerly Howard V Lobb & Partners) merged with HOK Sport.{{cite book |last1=Sheard |first1=Rod |title=The Stadium Architecture for the New Global Culture |date=2005 |publisher=Periplus Editions |location=Singapore |isbn=0-7946-0335-1}}
• Alison and Peter Smithson (1928-1993) and (1923-2003) Pioneers of Industrial Aesthetic
• Basil Spence (1907-1976) Designer of bolt-together pavilion for Festival of Britain
• Colin Stansfield Smith (1932-2013) Hampshire County Architect and Patron
• Ralph Tubbs (1912–1996) Designer of bolt-together pavilion for Festival of Britain
• Konrad Wachsmann (1901–1980)
• Derek Walker (1929–2015) Architect and Patron for Milton Keynes Development Corporation
• Michael Webb (architect) (b. 1937) Co-founder of Archigram
• Mark Whitby (b. 1950) Worked, early in his career, for Anthony Hunt Associates and Buro Happold
• John Winter (architect) (1930–2012) Writer and critic
• Georgina Wolton (−2021)

Noteworthy architectural practices

• Powell & Moya (architectural practice formed 1948)
• Howard V Lobb & Partners{{cite web |title=Howard V. Lobb & Partners |url=https://www.arthistoryresearch.net/index.php?mode=stream&tab=1&person_ref=159073&letter=&findMode=browse_subjects&person_name=Howard+V.+Lobb+%26+Partners&subject_name=Howard+V.+Lobb+%26+Partners |website=Art History Research net |access-date=12 June 2021}} (architectural practice formed 1950) merged with HOK (firm) (architectural practice founded 1955) renamed Populous (architectural practice renamed 2009)
• Building Design Partnership (BDP) (architectural practice founded 1961)
• Williamson Faulkner Brown (architectural practice) now named FaulknerBrowns Architects (architectural practice from 2013{{cite web |title=FAULKNERBROWNS LLP |url=https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/OC386918 |website=Companies House |access-date=12 June 2021}})
• Gillinson{{cite web |title=Basic Biographical Details Basil Zaleg Gillinson |url=http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id=401863 |website=Dictionary of Scottish Architects |access-date=12 June 2021}} Barnett & Partners (architectural practice formed 1970) now named Barnett & Partners (architectural practice)

In the austere post World War II Britain, illustrations associated with the comic-book heroes, science fiction writing, aircraft and aerospace industries and military hardware such as the Bailey Bridge provided inspirational imagery for the British High Tech architects.

Furthermore, in 1951, the Festival of Britain{{cite ODNB |last1=Harwood |first1=Elain |title=Festival of Britain, creators of (act. 1948–1951) |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-97278 |year=2018 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/97278 |isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 |access-date=31 May 2021}}{{cite web |title=The Festival of Britain Conway Archive |url=https://assets.courtauld.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/24171323/The-Festival-of-Britain-Supplementary-Resource-Draft.pdf |website=The Courtauld |access-date=31 May 2021}} intended to lift the spirits of the nation following the austerity of WWII, brought together under the architectural Directorship of Hugh Casson a group of leading architects and engineers to create a series of mainly temporary exhibition buildings located primarily on South Bank area of London.

Most of all in 1969, Apollo 11 and its Lunar Module pointed the way towards light weight exoskeletal transient structures free from conventional building limitations. Science Fiction images from Paolo Soleri,{{cite book |last1=Sheckley |first1=Robert |title=Futuropolis Impossible Cities of Science Fiction and Fantasy |date=1978 |publisher=Bergström and Boyle Books Ltd |location=London |isbn=0-903767-22-8}} Georgii Krutikov,{{cite web |last1=Maksel |first1=Rebecca |title=The Soviet City in the Sky 1928 |url=https://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/soaring-city-180957990/ |website=Air & Space |access-date=16 May 2021}} Buckminster Fuller, Robert McCall, Syd Mead,{{cite book |last1=Mead |first1=Syd |title=Steel Couture – Syd Mead- Futurist Sentinel |date=1979 |publisher=Dragon's Dream, Big O Publishing |location=Ambacht Netherlands |isbn=90-6332-591-6}} and, of significance, British author Arthur C. Clarke, (who in 1948 wrote the short story, first published in 1951, "Sentinel of Eternity", which was used as a starting point for the 1968 novel and film 2001: A Space Odyssey), provided a rich source of inspiration for the High Tech movement.

Wide span column-free dome, cuboid and pyramid-shaped building envelopes provided flexibility for internal layout and use patterns.https://sportsleisurelegacy.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/The-Standardised-Approach-to-Sports-Halls-vFIN-hg.pdfhttps://www.spabusiness.com/spa-business-magazine/Sports-Hall-Developing-the-right-sports-hall/27196https://www.scribd.com/document/254072392/Sport-England-S-Sports-Halls-Design-and-Layouts Dutch architect Constant Nieuwenhuys in New Babylon, his long work including drawings and writings of 1959–1974 (not yet called High Tech), foresaw a fictitious world in which the pursuit of pleasure and play, rather than work, had become the mainstay of everyday life for the élite of society.

UK Local Authorities in the 1970s, both at seaside locations and as a part of urban regeneration initiatives, sought to recreate the fun attractions of sun-bathing and swimming in artificially-created waves. Out-of-London UK architects Gillinson Barnett & Partners (Leeds), and Williamson Faulkner Brown Architects (Newcastle upon Tyne) were leaders in this form of design with schemes including Summerland in the Isle of Man (destroyed by fire two years after opening),{{cite web |title=CHAPTER 3 THIS IS TO BE THE DAWN OF A NEW ERA OF BRITISH LEISURE ARCHITECTURE |url=https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/documents/college-les/gees/miscellaneous/fire-disaster-c3.pdf |website=birmingham.ac.uk |access-date=8 June 2021}} Sun Centre Rhyl North Wales (now demolished),{{cite web |title=Beside the seaside |url=https://cdn.rt.emap.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2016/09/19142530/pdfajjuly1980p122.pdf |website=cdn.rt.emap.com |access-date=8 June 2021}} Oasis Leisure Centre Swindon,{{cite web |title=10 The Oasis Pleasure Dome |url=https://swindonian.me/2021/02/03/10-the-oasis-pleasure-dome/ |website=Swindonian |date=3 February 2021 |access-date=8 June 2021}} and Bletchley Leisure Centre in Milton Keynes (now demolished).{{cite web |title=Bletchley Leisure Centre FaulknerBrowns, Milton Keynes, 1974 |url=https://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/3559 |website=AJ Buildings Library |access-date=8 June 2021}} Only the Oasis Leisure Centre remains as an example of this building type, although it is itself presently{{cite web |title=Plan to rejuvenate the Oasis in balance after listing application |url=https://www.swindon.gov.uk/news/article/625/plan_to_rejuvenate_the_oasis_in_balance_after_listing_application |website=Swindon Borough Council |access-date=8 June 2021}} under threat of demolition.{{cite web |last1=Angelini |first1=Daniel |title=Leisure centre architect backs listing of Oasis facility |url=https://www.swindonadvertiser.co.uk/news/19325973.leisure-centre-architect-backs-listing-oasis-facility/ |website=Swindon Advertiser |access-date=6 June 2021}}{{cite web |last1=Ing |first1=Will |title='Loss of a typology': campaigners call for listing of Swindon leisure centre |url=https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/loss-of-a-typology-campaigners-call-for-listing-of-swindon-leisure-centre |website=Architects' Journal AJ |date=21 April 2021 |access-date=6 June 2021}}{{cite web |last1=Crook |first1=Lizzie |title=Oasis Leisure Centre in Swindon is on the list following the reveal of refurbishment plans involving the demolition of its centrepiece |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2021/05/04/twentieth-century-society-buildings-under-threat-uk/ |website=De Zeen |date=4 May 2021 |access-date=6 June 2021}}

Factory-finished components, brought to site and bolted together, provided uniformity in appearance and standardisation which would allow components to be replaced or reconfigured. Typical of this design trend was the use of a Braithwaite water tank{{cite web |title=Braithwaite pressed steel sectional water tanks, United Kingdom |url=https://www.ideastatica.com/nl/case-studies/braithwaite-pressed-steel-sectional-water-tanks-united-kingdom |website=Idea StatiCa |access-date=9 June 2021}} by the Smithsons in their designs for Hunstanton Secondary Modern School in Norfolk UK.

Industrial components, batch-produced in factories using newly invented materials or new manufacturing processes allowed the construction/assembly of High Tech buildings to move forward.

Using 'component-based, light weight, factory-finished using standardised interchangeable highly engineered parts' as a template for High Tech Building, in due course technologies developed in allied industries such as boatbuilding, vehicle manufacture or cold storage were transferred to British High Tech architecture.

The use of computer-aided design (CAD) for 3D modelling, and therefore as a basic tool for architectural design, emerged during the 1990s{{cite book |last1=Jacobs |first1=Stephen Paul |title=The CAD Studio 3D Modelling as a fundamental design Skill |date=1991 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Inc |location=New York |isbn=0-07-032228-7}} Prior to that date, CAD had been used to a limited extent in structural analysis and as a means of managing and recording traditional drawings. 1983 saw the first 2D Autocad software designed for PC use.{{cite web |title=HISTORY OF 3D MODELING: FROM EUCLID TO 3D PRINTING |url=https://ufo3d.com/history-of-3d-modeling/ |website=Ufo 3D |date=14 June 2019 |access-date=4 June 2021}} Earlier (c1975), "the architects (Gillinson Barnett & Partners) had to devise a computer programme to deal with the large number of components (in the Oasis Leisure Centre Dome roof, Swindon), and the ‘frame analysis’ was reportedly handled by a NASA computer at Houston".{{cite web |last1=Samaurez Smith |first1=Otto |title=tweet re. Oasis Dome, Swindon |url=https://twitter.com/OSaumarezSmith/status/1248215094464516096 |access-date=4 June 2021}} In c.1984, Ove Arup and Partners produced computer-generated 3D modelling of the Schlumberger Gould Research Centre, Cambridge, roof membrane.{{NHLE |desc=Schlumberger Gould Research Centre and attached perimeter wall to the north |num=1438644 |access-date=5 June 2021}}

With the widespread advance of IT, (the use of computers to store or retrieve data) CAD quickly became the essential tool of architectural and engineering design. Anthony Hunt is on record as saying: "... that it was only possible to design and construct the huge biodomes of the Eden Project... because of advances made in computer modelling techniques".{{cite book |last1=Dale |first1=Nigel |title=Connexions The Unseen Hand of Tony Hunt |date=2012 |publisher=Whittles Publishing |location=Dunbeath |isbn=978-1-84995-030-5 |pages=171}}

In the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, which led the way to establishment of the Equal Opportunities Commission (United Kingdom), parity between men and women in pay and opportunity became enshrined in law. This coincided with a group of women such as Alison Smithson, Wendy Foster, Su Rogers, Georgina Wolton and Patty Hopkins{{cite web |last1=Mark |first1=Laura |title=Patty Hopkins: 'I have always revelled in my varied role' |url=https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/patty-hopkins-i-have-always-revelled-in-my-varied-role |website=Architects' Journal AJ |date=7 February 2014 |access-date=7 June 2021}} establishing themselves as equals in what had been up until then a predominately male-oriented profession.

The mid 1980s saw not only the damning "is like a monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much-loved and elegant friend" speech by HRH Charles Prince of Wales,{{cite news |last1=Glancey |first1=Jonathan |title=Life after Carbuncles |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2004/may/17/architecture.regeneration |newspaper=The Guardian |date=17 May 2004 |access-date=3 June 2021}} but also the death of several key proponents of British High Tech architecture – among which were Buckminster Fuller (1983), Jean Prouvé (1984), Walter Segal (1985) and Reyner Banham (1988), each of whom were significant for their teachings as well as for their building designs.

Following the Taylor Report, a Home Office report, the result of a public inquiry into "The Hillsborough Stadium Disaster 15 April 1989",{{cite web|title=Hillsborough Stadium Disaster final report.pdf|url=https://www.jesip.org.uk/uploads/media/incident_reports_and_inquiries/Hillsborough%20Stadium%20Disaster%20final%20report.pdf |website=Home Office |access-date=9 June 2021}} recommendations were such that a new generation of all-seater football stadia became the norm for top division football clubs in the UK. Architects the Lobb Partnership (formerly Howard V Lobb & Partners) in conjunction with The Sports Council promoted designs for "A Stadium for the Nineties" giving rise to a new generation of UK football grounds, the first of which was Kirklees Stadium Huddersfield. Rod Sheard, Principal of Lobb Partnership (later known as Lobb Sports Architecture) designed a series of sports venues using High Tech methodology such as retractable roofs and flamboyant exposed steel structures.

As an adjunct to Richard Buckminster Fuller's question "How much does your building weigh?", that expressed his philosophy of light weight building which in turn reduced wastefulness and therefore conserved Earth's precious resources, he backed up this concept with his Dymaxion Map launched as "World Game: a unique experiment to develop a computer coordinated model of planet earth to research world resources and develop ways of running the future for the benefit of mankind".{{cite web |title=Sustaining Planet Earth: Researching World Resources |url=https://www.motherearthnews.com/nature-and-environment/world-resources-zmaz70ndzgoe |website=Mother Earth News |access-date=16 June 2021}}

In both the worlds of science fiction, space travel and in areas of extreme climatic conditions on Earth, the imagery of British High Tech architecture endures in real projects as well as those imagined. A series of buildings and design competition entries for the Halley Research Station at Halley Bay, Antarctica and Ski Haus by Richard Horden/Anthony Hunt derive solutions for extremes of climate from High Tech imagery. David Nixon promotes similar interests "Design, Construction and Operation of Buildings and Habitats in Extreme Environments" and in "a book entitled 'Architecture of the International Space Station' – the first book to examine the Station from an architectural viewpoint"{{cite web |last1=David Nixon |first1=IDSA RIBA |title=Biography |url=https://network.aia.org/network/members/profile?UserKey=e525eb24-1c65-42af-b4c5-89ce40c8449e |website=AIA Knowledge Net |access-date=17 May 2021}} Hugh Broughton, one of the world's leading designers of polar research facilities including Halley VI,{{cite web |last1=Broughton |first1=Hugh |title=Halley VI British Antarctic Research Station |url=https://hbarchitects.co.uk/halley-vi-british-antarctic-research-station/ |website=Hugh Broughton Architects}} takes the High Tech concept further with designs for 'Building a Martian House'{{cite web |last1=Broughton |first1=Hugh |title=Building a Martian House |url=https://hbarchitects.co.uk/news/building-martian-house/ |website=Hugh Broughton Architects}}{{cite journal |last1=Pitcher |first1=Greg |title=Polar research specialist Hugh Broughton Architects has secured planning permission to build a 'Martian House' in Bristol |journal=Architects Journal AJ |date=28 October 2020}} – an exhibition in Bristol led by local artists Ella Good and Nicki Kent.{{cite web |last1=Carlson |first1=Cajsa |title=Gold inflatable house for Mars designed by Hugh Broughton Architects and Pearce+ |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2020/11/02/hugh-broughton-architects-pearce-martian-house-bristol-architecture/#:~:text=Martian%20House%2C%20which%20will%20be,on%20Earth%20and%20on%20Mars. |website=De Zeen |date=2 November 2020 |access-date=23 May 2021}}{{cite web |title=Building a Martian House |url=https://www.bristolhousingfestival.org.uk/2020-exhibition-hall-content/2020/10/5/ella-good-nicki-kent |website=Bristol Housing Festival |access-date=23 May 2021}}

In 2015 Foster + Partners were shortlisted finalists for the 3D Printed Habitat Challenge,{{cite web |last1=Howell |first1=Elizabeth |title=Here's the Winner of NASA's 3D-Printed Mars Habitat Challenge |url=https://www.space.com/nasa-3d-printed-habitat-competition-winners.html |website=Space.com |date=10 May 2019 |access-date=23 May 2021}} organized by America Makes and NASA – submitting designs for a Mars settlement.{{cite web |last1=Weller |first1=Chris |title=The architects behind Apple's new campus have released designs for a Mars settlement |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-mars-settlement-designed-by-foster-and-partners-2015-9?r=US&IR=T |website=Business Insider |access-date=23 May 2021}} Concept art for The Martian (2015) Steve Burg supposes accommodation modules on supporting legs (stilts){{cite web |title=The Martian Steve Burg |url=https://www.artstation.com/artwork/nyaLr |website=Art Station |access-date=17 May 2021}} reminiscent of their light weight component-based bolt-together counterparts of the 1970s and 1980s such as the Rogers' Zip-Up House designed between 1967 and 1969 for The House of Today competition, and the aforementioned Hugh Broughton polar research station designs.

Archigram were awarded RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 2002.{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=David |title=Archigram wins Royal Gold Medal |journal=Architects Journal AJ |date=14 February 2002 |url=https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/archive/archigram-wins-royal-gold-medal}} Other recipients of this prestigious award relevant to this article are (in reverse date order): Sir Nicholas Grimshaw (2019), Frei Otto (2005), Michael and Patricia Hopkins (1994), Peter Rice (1992), Colin Stansfield Smith (1991), Renzo Piano (1989), Sir Richard Rogers (1985), Sir Norman Foster (1983), Charles and Ray Eames (1979), Powell and Moya (1974) and Buckminster Fuller (1968), demonstrating that the legacy of Proponents of British high-tech architecture has remained at the forefront of architectural pioneering work well into the twenty-first century.

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Category:High-tech architecture

Category:Prefabricated buildings