Calochortus

Calochortus flowers have six tepals. Unlike most other Liliaceae, Calochortus tepals are in two series that differ in size and color. The outer three are generally narrower and more sepal-like, while the inner three are larger, usually with bright marks at the base,{{Citation |mode=cs1 |last=Mathew |first=Brian |year=1987 |title=The Smaller Bulbs |publication-place=London |publisher=B.T. Batsford |isbn=978-0-7134-4922-8 |page=22}} and are often described as petals.{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Ronald J.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25708726|title=Sagebrush Country: A Wildflower Sanctuary|publisher=Mountain Press Pub. Co|year=1994|isbn=0-87842-280-3|edition=rev.|location=Missoula, MT|pages=74|language=en|oclc=25708726|orig-year=1992}} The flowers are borne on a stem that arises from a bulb, generally in the spring or early summer. Flowers can be white, yellow, pink, purple, bluish, or streaked. The insides of the petals are often very 'hairy'. These hairs, along with the nectaries, are often used in distinguishing species from each other.

;SpeciesGerritsen, Mary E and Parsons, R. Calochortus. Mariposa Lilies and Their Relatives. Timber Press, 2007.[http://bonap.net/NAPA/TaxonMaps/Genus/County/Calochortus Biota of North America Program 2034 county distribution maps]Espejo Serena, A. & López-Ferrari, A.R. (1994). Las Monocotiledóneas Mexicanas una Sinopsis Florística 1(3): 1-74. Consejo Nacional de la Flora de México, México D.F.Gerritsen, M.E. & Parsons, R. (2007). Calochortus: Mariposa lilies & their relatives: 1-232. Timber press, Inc. Portland, U.S.A.

The genus Calochortus includes approximately 70 species distributed from southwestern British Columbia, through California and Mexico, to northern Guatemala and eastwards to New Mexico, Nebraska and the Dakotas. Calochortus is the most widely dispersed genus of Liliaceae on the North American Pacific Coast.Dale, Nancy; Flowering Plants of the Santa Monica Mountains, Capra Press, 1986; pg. 28 Of these, 28 species are endemic to California.USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service, Plant Profile for Calochortus Pursh; Data contributed by John K. Kartesz and USDA-NRCS National Plant Data Center

In 1998, T.B. Patterson conducted a phylogenetic analysis of the genus, dividing it into seven main clades (see Subdivision update below). The study indicated highly localized speciation, so that different floral syndromes were strongly linked to specific habitats, as follows:P. L. Fiedler & R. K. Zebell, Flora of North America; [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105173 18. Calochortus Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. 1: 240. 1814.]

• Mariposas: dry grasslands, open chaparral, semideserts
• Star-tulips: wet meadows
• Cat's ears: montane woodlands
• Fairy lanterns: oak woodlands, closed forests.

Calochortus was first proposed in 1814 by Frederick Pursh to accommodate a specimen—C. elegans—received from the Lewis and Clark expedition. In the 1800s, several species were added to the genus; however, much mistakes in naming conventions led to confusion and minimal knowledge gained by the end of the century.

In 1940, Francis Marion Ownbey wrote a comprehensive monograph on Calochortus, referencing morphological evidence, geographical distribution, and his own study of cytological material. Ownbey proposed a treatment dividing Calochortus into three sections (later corroborated by J.M. Beal{{Cite journal |last1=Beal |first1=J. M. |last2=Ownbey |first2=Marion |date=1943 |title=Cytological Studies in Relation to the Classification of the Genus Calochortus. III |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/335169 |journal=Botanical Gazette |language=en |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=553–562 |doi=10.1086/335169 |issn=0006-8071|url-access=subscription }}):

1. Eucalochortus
2. * Ten basic chromosomes and two known cases of tetraploidy
3. * Includes subsections Pulchelli, Eleganti, Nudi, Nitidi
4. Mariposa
5. * Basic chromosome numbers between six and nine
6. * Includes subsections Venusti, Macrocarpi, Nuttalliani, Gunnisoniani
7. Cyclobothra
8. * Nine basic chromosomes
9. * Includes subsection Weediani

In 1985, F.N. Rasmussen developed a new treatment splitting Calochortus from Liliaceae, moving it into a separate family—Calochortaceae—based on chromosomal evidence, septicidal fruit, and a Polygonum type embryo sac formation.{{Citation |last=Rasmussen |first=F. N. |title=Superorder Liliiflorae |date=1985 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-61663-1_11 |work=The Families of the Monocotyledons: Structure, Evolution, and Taxonomy |pages=107–274 |editor-last=Dahlgren |editor-first=Rolf M. T. |access-date=2023-12-27 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-61663-1_11 |isbn=978-3-642-61663-1 |editor2-last=Clifford |editor2-first=H. Trevor |editor3-last=Yeo |editor3-first=Peter F.|url-access=subscription }} Rasmussen found that the basic chromosome numbers of Calochortus vary between seven and twenty.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Thomas B. Patterson and Thomas J. Givnish gathered additional evidence to create a new Calochortus treatment, subdividing it into seven sections and providing reasoning behind Calochortus being separate from Liliaceae. In 1999, Patterson used cpDNA (specifically rbcL and ndhF sequences) isolated from frozen or silica dried leaf tissue to develop a molecular phylogeny, finding that Calochortus should be divided into seven major clades based on geographic location:Patterson, TB. 1999. Phylogeny, biogeography, and evolutionary trends in the core Liliales and Calochortus (Calochortaceae): Insights from DNA sequenced data (Ph.D.). United States -- Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin - Madison.

• Bay Area
• Pacific Northwest
• San Diego
• Great Basin- Rocky Mountains
• Coast Ranges- Sierra Nevada
• Southwestern California
• Central Mexico

Patterson also determined at the time that concerted convergence and phylogenetic niche conservatism may have confounded the idea that Calochortaceae (Calochortus) and Liliaceae are closely related. In 2002, Patterson and Givnish expanded on these arguments, showing that concerted convergence was demonstrated through independent evolution of characteristics such as bulbs and showy flowers and the distinct differences of these appearing as a result of survival in specific habitats.{{Cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=Thomas B. |last2=Givnish |first2=Thomas J. |date=2002 |title=PHYLOGENY, CONCERTED CONVERGENCE, AND PHYLOGENETIC NICHE CONSERVATISM IN THE CORE LILIALES: INSIGHTS FROM rbcL AND ndhF SEQUENCE DATA |journal=Evolution |language=en |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=233–252 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01334.x |issn=0014-3820|doi-access=free |pmid=11926492 }} Regarding phylogenetic niche conservatism, Patterson and Givnish make the argument that this phenomenon is present in the plesiomorphic characteristics of rhizomes, inconspicuous flowers, berries, broad leaves, and reticulate venation.

In 2004, Patterson and Givnish made the shift to lump Calochortus within Liliaceae within their paper per the recommendations of Bremer et al. (2003){{Cite journal |last1=Bremer |first1=B |last2=Bremer |first2=K |last3=Chase |first3=MW |last4=Reveal |first4=JL |last5=Soltis |first5=DE |last6=Soltis |first6=PS |last7=Stevens |first7=PF |last8=Anderberg |first8=AA |last9=Fay |first9=MF |last10=Goldblatt |first10=P |last11=Judd |first11=WS |last12=Kallersjo |first12=M |last13=Karehed |first13=J |last14=Kron |first14=KA |last15=Lundberg |first15=J |date=2003 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II |url=https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/141/4/399/2433548 |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=141 |issue=4 |pages=399–436 |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x |issn=0024-4074|url-access=subscription }} and Bremer, Chase, and Stevens (1998).{{Cite journal |last1=Bremer |first1=K |last2=Chase |first2=MW |last3=Stevens |first3=PF |date=1998 |title=An Ordinal Classification for the Families of Flowering Plants |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2992015 |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=531 |doi=10.2307/2992015|jstor=2992015 }} Using similar DNA collection techniques to Patterson (1999), Patterson and Givnish developed a more detailed molecular phylogeny, comparing the seven recently determined sections to Ownbey's original three and finding that Ownbey's Eucalochortus section is monophyletic, Mariposa is paraphyletic, and Cyclobothra is polyphyletic.{{Cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=Thomas B. |last2=Givnish |first2=Thomas J. |date=2004 |title=Geographic cohesion, chromosomal evolution, parallel adaptive radiations, and consequent floral adaptations in Calochortus (Calochortaceae): evidence from a cpDNA phylogeny |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00951.x |journal=New Phytologist |language=en |volume=161 |issue=1 |pages=253–264 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00951.x |issn=0028-646X|url-access=subscription }} As a result of their research, Patterson and Givnish (2004) found that the two main factors of Calochortus speciation are:

1. Poor dispersal caused by heavy, passively dispersed seeds
2. Chromosomal evolution allowing different clades to "double up" and radiate sympatrically without hybridizing

Within Calochortus, almost one-third of species are characterized by ultramafic (form serpentine soils) habitat preferences or specific edaphic requirements, with several being endemic to their environments.{{Cite journal |last=Fiedler |first=Peggy Lee |date=1985 |title=Heavy Metal Accumulation and the Nature of Edaphic Endemism in the Genus Calochortus (Liliaceae) |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1985.tb08443.x |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=72 |issue=11 |pages=1712–1718 |doi=10.2307/2443728|jstor=2443728 |url-access=subscription }} Thus, scientists have used serpentine tolerance in understanding evolutionary relationships within the genus. For instance, Patterson and Givnish (2004) created a serpentine tolerance phylogeny. 18 serpentine tolerant species were found (classified by occurring in whole or in part on serpentine soils) and the largest presence of tolerance was found in the Bay Area and Pacific Northwest clades—areas with unusually high numbers of serpentine rocks at the Earth's surface. In addition, Patterson and Givnish (2004) found that 11 out of 18 species displayed only two origins of serpentine tolerance in evolutionary history.

The bulbs of many species were eaten by Native Americans.{{Cite web |url=http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl |title=University of Michigan at Dearborn, Native American Ethnobotany: Calochortus |access-date=2015-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204015613/http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl |archive-date=2013-12-04 |url-status=dead }} These bulbs were eaten raw or gathered in the fall and boiled, and the flower buds when young and fresh. They were eaten by the Mormon settlers between 1853 and 1858 when famine threatened new immigrants in the Great Salt Lake Valley, due to crop failures. The bulbs are a starchy food source similar to a potato tuber.{{Cite journal |last=Ownbey |first=Marion |date=1940 |title=A Monograph of the Genus Calochortus |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2394384 |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=371–560 |doi=10.2307/2394384|jstor=2394384 }}

Some Native Americans called Calochortus "sego". They used it as food, in ceremonies and as a traditional medicinal plant.

Some Calochortus species are cultivated as ornamental plants by specialty nurseries and botanic gardens to sell.{{Cite web |url=http://www.telosrarebulbs.com/calochortus.html |title=Telos Rare Bulbs Nursery database: Calochortus |access-date=2015-04-17 |archive-date=2020-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406162840/http://www.telosrarebulbs.com/calochortus.html |url-status=dead }} The bulbs are planted for their flowers, in traditional, native plant, and wildlife gardens; in rock gardens; and in potted container gardens for those needing unwatered Summer dormancy.

• List of plants known as lily

{{Reflist}}

• {{ITIS |id=42823 |taxon=Calochortus}}
• [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?Calochortus Treatment from the Jepson Manual (TJM93)]
• Gerritsen, Mary E and Parsons, R. Calochortus. Mariposa Lilies and Their Relatives. Timber Press, 2007.
• [http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Calochortus Pacific Bulb Society]

{{Commons category|Calochortus|position=left}}

• {{Commons-inline|2=Calochortus}}
• {{Wikispecies-inline|Calochortus|Calochortus}}
• [http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/specieslist.cgi?where-genus=Calochortus Calflora Database: Calochortus] — all species native to California.
• [http://www.flickriver.com/search/calochortus/ photos by Mark Egger, Flickriver search for Calochortus] many photos of many species
• [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_key.pl?Calochortus Jepson Manual (TJM93): Key to California Calochortus species]
• [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105173 Genus overview, Key to North American species]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20121106101359/http://picasaweb.google.com/navbo123/AGalleryOfCalochortusSpeciesAndNaturalHybrids%23 Gallery of Photos. US and Mexican Calochortus Species and Natural Hybrids]

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{{Liliaceae}}

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Category:Liliaceae genera

Category:Taxa named by Frederick Traugott Pursh